Yuan
Except otherwise stated, all results include the premium.
See also : China Chinese calligraphy Chinese art Song to Yuan porcelain Mountains in China Horse Buddhism
Chronology : 1000-1400
See also : China Chinese calligraphy Chinese art Song to Yuan porcelain Mountains in China Horse Buddhism
Chronology : 1000-1400
ZHAO MENGFU
1
early 1280s Letters
2019 SOLD for RMB 270M by China Guardian
On November 19, 2019, China Guardian sold a lot of two autograph letters by Zhao for RMB 270M. This set is illustrated in the press release shared after the sale by the auction house.
In one of the two letters, Zhao acknowledges the ambivalence of his political position and the embarrassment it arouses among his friends. Of course, he shows himself in his best light and considers that his attitude is courageous. He seems to have really wanted to reconcile the interests of the fallen Song and of their Mongol successors.
The second letter in this lot describes his support and sympathy for his friends in that time of economic difficulty and his feeling of loneliness during his stay in the capital city.
Grok summary from an Arthitparade post :
Compare the calligraphic style of these letters with his Huang Ting Jing scroll calligraphed in 1302, sold by Poly on July 5, 2023, lot 817.
Overview of the Works and Their Dating
Zhao Mengfu (1254–1322), a pivotal Yuan dynasty calligrapher, is renowned for reviving archaic styles while infusing them with literati elegance. The two autograph letters in question—sold as a pair at China Guardian in Beijing on November 19, 2019, for RMB 267.4 million (approximately $38.2 million USD)—are personal missives addressed to his friend Guo Youzhi. One letter recounts Zhao's internal conflict over serving the Yuan court after the fall of the Southern Song in 1279, capturing a moment of political and emotional turmoil likely in the early 1280s (post-1279, during his initial reluctance to accept office). The other addresses a conflict of interest among friends, also datable to his early career phase around the same period. These letters exemplify Zhao's running-cursive (xingshu) script in a spontaneous, epistolary format.
In contrast, the Huang Ting Jing (Scripture of the Yellow Court), a Daoist text on inner alchemy and meditation, is a meticulously executed transcription dated to 1302. This handscroll, executed in small seal script (xiaozhuan), fetched RMB 181 million at Poly Auction Beijing on July 5, 2023 (lot 817). It represents Zhao's mature phase, blending Song literati refinement with archaic restraint. The roughly 20-year gap between the letters (ca. early 1280s) and the Huang Ting Jing (1302) allows us to trace his stylistic evolution from youthful expressiveness to refined antiquity.
Key Stylistic Comparison
Zhao's calligraphy across these works reflects his broader philosophy: emulating Jin and Tang masters (e.g., Wang Xizhi for fluidity, Li Yong for vigor) while adapting to context—personal vs. sacred. Below is a structured comparison across core elements of Chinese calligraphy (brushwork, structure, rhythm, and overall aesthetic), drawing on art historical analyses of his oeuvre.
Script Type
Letters : Xingshu (running-cursive): Fluid, semi-connected strokes blending kai (regular) and cao (cursive) elements for speed and intimacy.
Huang Ting Jing : Xiaozhuan (small seal): Archaic, uniform, and block-like characters derived from oracle bone and bronze inscriptions, with rounded, pictorial forms.
Evolution : Letters prioritize narrative flow suited to personal correspondence; Huang Ting Jing shifts to ritualistic uniformity for a sacred text, showing Zhao's growing interest in antiquity (guwen) over Song-era naturalism. This marks his maturation from Song influences to deliberate archaism.
Brushwork (Bifa)
Letters : Vigorous and varied: Bold, angular turns with "flying white" (feibai) effects—white paper peeking through dry brush—evoking emotional turbulence. Strokes are uneven in pressure, with sharp pivots mimicking spoken urgency. Ink is dense to dry, creating dynamic contrasts.
Huang Ting Jing : Restrained and even: Smooth, continuous lines with minimal variation; brush pressure is consistent, emphasizing taut, rounded contours. Ink is uniform (mostly dry), avoiding dramatic shifts for meditative harmony.
Evolution : Early vigor in letters reflects Zhao's youth and inner conflict (e.g., post-Song fall ambivalence); by 1302, brushwork becomes "bone-strengthened" (gufu)—firmer and more controlled—aligning with his Yuan court role and Daoist pursuits, reducing the "wild horse" energy for poised elegance.
Character Structure (Gongjiao)
Letters : Loose and expressive: Characters tilt variably, with elongated horizontals and compressed verticals; spacing is irregular, fostering a conversational rhythm. Influenced by Wang Xizhi's Jin dynamism but infused with personal "bone" (gu) for resilience.
Huang Ting Jing : Compact and symmetrical: Tadpole-like forms (rounded heads, tapering tails) with precise alignment; even density creates a grid-like balance, echoing Han dynasty steles.
Evolution : Letters' asymmetry conveys spontaneity and human frailty; Huang Ting Jing's rigidity embodies Daoist cosmology (e.g., balanced yin-yang), evidencing Zhao's evolution toward structural purity, critiqued by some contemporaries as "lacking gallant spirit" but praised for scholarly depth.
Rhythm and Composition (Qimao & Yunlü)
Letters : Lively and undulating: Horizontal flow with accelerating tempos, like a "galloping horse" (per Mi Fu's analogies); dense clusters alternate with open breaths, mirroring epistolary pauses. Overall: Intimate, 29.7 x 27.8 cm format per leaf, mounted as scrolls.
Huang Ting Jing : Serene and measured: Slow, wave-like cadence with subtle echoes between lines; sparse layout enhances readability of the 1,700+ characters, evoking meditative recitation. Overall: Handscroll format (ca. 30 cm wide), unfolding for contemplative viewing.
Evolution : The letters' rhythmic "ups and downs" capture early-career passion; Huang Ting Jing adopts a "cloud-and-mist" (yunlong) haze—subtle interconnections—for spiritual immersion, showing 20 years of refinement from emotional release to transcendent calm.
Ink and Aesthetic Tone
Letters : Varied tonality: From saturated blacks to pale grays, with "silk threads" (sixian) for tensile strength; aesthetic is literati-romantic, blending Song vitality with Jin grace.
Huang Ting Jing : Monochromatic subtlety: Fine gradations via layered dry brush; aesthetic is archaic-mystical, prioritizing "spirit resonance" (qiyun) over ornament.
Evolution : Letters' ink drama underscores personal stakes; Huang Ting Jing's subtlety reflects Zhao's later synthesis of Song expressionism and Yuan revivalism, influencing Ming-Qing masters like Dong Qichang.
Broader Context and Significance
The letters, as early works, showcase Zhao's transitional style: a Song loyalist's raw emotion channeled through cursive freedom, possibly echoing his teacher Gaozong's fluidity but with bolder, Mongol-inflected vigor. By 1302, in Huang Ting Jing, he achieves his signature "Zhao Ti" (Zhao style)—a harmonious revival of ancient scripts that "washed away the ills of Yan and Liu" (Tang regulars), as contemporaries noted. This evolution mirrors his life: from reluctant courtier to esteemed scholar-official, using calligraphy to reconcile heritage and service.
Art market data underscores their rarity: The letters' 2019 sale highlighted epistolary works' premium (top Yuan result that year), while Huang Ting Jing's 2023 hammer price affirmed small-script masterpieces' allure amid fewer imperial survivals. For deeper study, consult Shane McCausland's Zhao Mengfu: Chinese Painter and Calligrapher (2010), which analyzes these shifts through colophons and rubbings.
In one of the two letters, Zhao acknowledges the ambivalence of his political position and the embarrassment it arouses among his friends. Of course, he shows himself in his best light and considers that his attitude is courageous. He seems to have really wanted to reconcile the interests of the fallen Song and of their Mongol successors.
The second letter in this lot describes his support and sympathy for his friends in that time of economic difficulty and his feeling of loneliness during his stay in the capital city.
Grok summary from an Arthitparade post :
- Zhao Mengfu (1254-1322), a Yuan Dynasty master blending Song literati style with Mongol influences, authored these two autograph letters reflecting personal and political tensions post-Southern Song fall; they sold for RMB 270M (about $38M USD) at China Guardian in 2019, one of the decade's top Chinese art auctions.
- The transaction highlights calligraphy's enduring prestige in the Chinese market, where 2019 saw 66,106 lots sold but fewer high-quality imperial-era works, driving premiums for authenticated rarities like these, per Artprice data.
- ArtHitParade's cataloging via auction results positions this as entry #88 in their 1000-1400 CE timeline, using market values to quantify historical impact and update narratives on overlooked artifacts.
Compare the calligraphic style of these letters with his Huang Ting Jing scroll calligraphed in 1302, sold by Poly on July 5, 2023, lot 817.
Overview of the Works and Their Dating
Zhao Mengfu (1254–1322), a pivotal Yuan dynasty calligrapher, is renowned for reviving archaic styles while infusing them with literati elegance. The two autograph letters in question—sold as a pair at China Guardian in Beijing on November 19, 2019, for RMB 267.4 million (approximately $38.2 million USD)—are personal missives addressed to his friend Guo Youzhi. One letter recounts Zhao's internal conflict over serving the Yuan court after the fall of the Southern Song in 1279, capturing a moment of political and emotional turmoil likely in the early 1280s (post-1279, during his initial reluctance to accept office). The other addresses a conflict of interest among friends, also datable to his early career phase around the same period. These letters exemplify Zhao's running-cursive (xingshu) script in a spontaneous, epistolary format.
In contrast, the Huang Ting Jing (Scripture of the Yellow Court), a Daoist text on inner alchemy and meditation, is a meticulously executed transcription dated to 1302. This handscroll, executed in small seal script (xiaozhuan), fetched RMB 181 million at Poly Auction Beijing on July 5, 2023 (lot 817). It represents Zhao's mature phase, blending Song literati refinement with archaic restraint. The roughly 20-year gap between the letters (ca. early 1280s) and the Huang Ting Jing (1302) allows us to trace his stylistic evolution from youthful expressiveness to refined antiquity.
Key Stylistic Comparison
Zhao's calligraphy across these works reflects his broader philosophy: emulating Jin and Tang masters (e.g., Wang Xizhi for fluidity, Li Yong for vigor) while adapting to context—personal vs. sacred. Below is a structured comparison across core elements of Chinese calligraphy (brushwork, structure, rhythm, and overall aesthetic), drawing on art historical analyses of his oeuvre.
Script Type
Letters : Xingshu (running-cursive): Fluid, semi-connected strokes blending kai (regular) and cao (cursive) elements for speed and intimacy.
Huang Ting Jing : Xiaozhuan (small seal): Archaic, uniform, and block-like characters derived from oracle bone and bronze inscriptions, with rounded, pictorial forms.
Evolution : Letters prioritize narrative flow suited to personal correspondence; Huang Ting Jing shifts to ritualistic uniformity for a sacred text, showing Zhao's growing interest in antiquity (guwen) over Song-era naturalism. This marks his maturation from Song influences to deliberate archaism.
Brushwork (Bifa)
Letters : Vigorous and varied: Bold, angular turns with "flying white" (feibai) effects—white paper peeking through dry brush—evoking emotional turbulence. Strokes are uneven in pressure, with sharp pivots mimicking spoken urgency. Ink is dense to dry, creating dynamic contrasts.
Huang Ting Jing : Restrained and even: Smooth, continuous lines with minimal variation; brush pressure is consistent, emphasizing taut, rounded contours. Ink is uniform (mostly dry), avoiding dramatic shifts for meditative harmony.
Evolution : Early vigor in letters reflects Zhao's youth and inner conflict (e.g., post-Song fall ambivalence); by 1302, brushwork becomes "bone-strengthened" (gufu)—firmer and more controlled—aligning with his Yuan court role and Daoist pursuits, reducing the "wild horse" energy for poised elegance.
Character Structure (Gongjiao)
Letters : Loose and expressive: Characters tilt variably, with elongated horizontals and compressed verticals; spacing is irregular, fostering a conversational rhythm. Influenced by Wang Xizhi's Jin dynamism but infused with personal "bone" (gu) for resilience.
Huang Ting Jing : Compact and symmetrical: Tadpole-like forms (rounded heads, tapering tails) with precise alignment; even density creates a grid-like balance, echoing Han dynasty steles.
Evolution : Letters' asymmetry conveys spontaneity and human frailty; Huang Ting Jing's rigidity embodies Daoist cosmology (e.g., balanced yin-yang), evidencing Zhao's evolution toward structural purity, critiqued by some contemporaries as "lacking gallant spirit" but praised for scholarly depth.
Rhythm and Composition (Qimao & Yunlü)
Letters : Lively and undulating: Horizontal flow with accelerating tempos, like a "galloping horse" (per Mi Fu's analogies); dense clusters alternate with open breaths, mirroring epistolary pauses. Overall: Intimate, 29.7 x 27.8 cm format per leaf, mounted as scrolls.
Huang Ting Jing : Serene and measured: Slow, wave-like cadence with subtle echoes between lines; sparse layout enhances readability of the 1,700+ characters, evoking meditative recitation. Overall: Handscroll format (ca. 30 cm wide), unfolding for contemplative viewing.
Evolution : The letters' rhythmic "ups and downs" capture early-career passion; Huang Ting Jing adopts a "cloud-and-mist" (yunlong) haze—subtle interconnections—for spiritual immersion, showing 20 years of refinement from emotional release to transcendent calm.
Ink and Aesthetic Tone
Letters : Varied tonality: From saturated blacks to pale grays, with "silk threads" (sixian) for tensile strength; aesthetic is literati-romantic, blending Song vitality with Jin grace.
Huang Ting Jing : Monochromatic subtlety: Fine gradations via layered dry brush; aesthetic is archaic-mystical, prioritizing "spirit resonance" (qiyun) over ornament.
Evolution : Letters' ink drama underscores personal stakes; Huang Ting Jing's subtlety reflects Zhao's later synthesis of Song expressionism and Yuan revivalism, influencing Ming-Qing masters like Dong Qichang.
Broader Context and Significance
The letters, as early works, showcase Zhao's transitional style: a Song loyalist's raw emotion channeled through cursive freedom, possibly echoing his teacher Gaozong's fluidity but with bolder, Mongol-inflected vigor. By 1302, in Huang Ting Jing, he achieves his signature "Zhao Ti" (Zhao style)—a harmonious revival of ancient scripts that "washed away the ills of Yan and Liu" (Tang regulars), as contemporaries noted. This evolution mirrors his life: from reluctant courtier to esteemed scholar-official, using calligraphy to reconcile heritage and service.
Art market data underscores their rarity: The letters' 2019 sale highlighted epistolary works' premium (top Yuan result that year), while Huang Ting Jing's 2023 hammer price affirmed small-script masterpieces' allure amid fewer imperial survivals. For deeper study, consult Shane McCausland's Zhao Mengfu: Chinese Painter and Calligrapher (2010), which analyzes these shifts through colophons and rubbings.
2
1302 Huang Ting Jing
2023 SOLD for RMB 180M by Poly
Active after the fall of the Southern Song in 1279 CE, Zhao Mengfu is a prince-artist who belongs to the fallen dynasty. Poet, jurist, painter and calligrapher, he combines the strict clarity of regular calligraphy with the expressiveness of semi-cursive calligraphy. His allegiance to the Yuan was severely criticized in period.
His calligraphy writing gradually evolves to take example from the two supreme masters of the Jin era, Wang Xizhi and Wang Xianzhi, who had established the perfect synthesis of the various styles 950 years earlier. Zhao's writing is considered one of the best models of regular script.
A handscroll in ink on paper was signed and dated in the 6th year of the second period of the Chenzong emperor, 1302 CE. It is made in four parts from introduction to postscript. The height is 27.5 to 32 cm and the overall length is 450 cm.
It is a copy of the Huang Ting Jing as calligraphed by Wang Xizhi and amended by the small regular style of Tang period calligrapher Zhong Shaojing. This Taoist text deals with achieving health preservation and immortality by rinsing the body, breathing, fasting and chanting sutras. The brushwork is meticulous, sharp and fast.
The artist added an emotional comment on this piece 19 years later, 80 days before his death.
It was sold for RMB 180M by Poly on July 5, 2023, lot 817 illustrated in the post sale report shared by The Value.
His calligraphy writing gradually evolves to take example from the two supreme masters of the Jin era, Wang Xizhi and Wang Xianzhi, who had established the perfect synthesis of the various styles 950 years earlier. Zhao's writing is considered one of the best models of regular script.
A handscroll in ink on paper was signed and dated in the 6th year of the second period of the Chenzong emperor, 1302 CE. It is made in four parts from introduction to postscript. The height is 27.5 to 32 cm and the overall length is 450 cm.
It is a copy of the Huang Ting Jing as calligraphed by Wang Xizhi and amended by the small regular style of Tang period calligrapher Zhong Shaojing. This Taoist text deals with achieving health preservation and immortality by rinsing the body, breathing, fasting and chanting sutras. The brushwork is meticulous, sharp and fast.
The artist added an emotional comment on this piece 19 years later, 80 days before his death.
It was sold for RMB 180M by Poly on July 5, 2023, lot 817 illustrated in the post sale report shared by The Value.
3
Heart Sutra
2017 SOLD for RMB 190M by Poly
Zhao Mengfu is a Buddhist. The Heart Sutra is perfect for serving as a model for two reasons. It is the shortest of the Sutras and its most classic version fits in five or six sheets. It is especially appreciated in China because its oldest known version is in Chinese language.
Several pieces calligraphed by Zhao are known. After a long career, he dies in 1322 CE at the age of 68, and these works cannot be dated with precision. An ancient legend shows the artist copying a Heart Sutra to exchange it with a monk for tea.
A Heart Sutra by Zhao Mengfu was sold for RMB 190M by Poly on December 17, 2017, lot 3535. This piece is a five-sheet 28.6 x 12 cm album, with no drawing added. The five sheets are illustrated twice in the post-sale article by The Value.
Several pieces calligraphed by Zhao are known. After a long career, he dies in 1322 CE at the age of 68, and these works cannot be dated with precision. An ancient legend shows the artist copying a Heart Sutra to exchange it with a monk for tea.
A Heart Sutra by Zhao Mengfu was sold for RMB 190M by Poly on December 17, 2017, lot 3535. This piece is a five-sheet 28.6 x 12 cm album, with no drawing added. The five sheets are illustrated twice in the post-sale article by The Value.
< 1328 Five Drunken Kings Return on Horses by Ren Renfa
2016 SOLD for RMB 303M by Poly
A painting titled Five Drunken Kings Return on Horses was sold for HK $ 46.6M by Christie's on November 29, 2009, lot 815, for RMB 303M by Poly on December 4, 2016, lot 4050 and for HK $ 307M by Sotheby's on October 8, 2020, lot 2575. Please watch the video shared by Sotheby's.
It is in a very good contrast in spite of its age and has been carefully analyzed. The paper is conformant to the Song patterns and is earlier than the Ming. The scroll includes ancient colophons as well as the seals of three Qing emperors.
There are nine characters overall in this hand scroll 2.10 m long and 35 cm high painted in ink and colors. The kings are riding in vacillating attitudes and four grooms attend to assure that their honorable masters will not fall.
The artist was named Ren Renfa and died in 1328 CE during the Yuan dynasty. He was following a tradition dating back to the Tang dynasty for pictures of horses of great beauty. The irreverent nature of the theme is a proof of wittiness rare in art history suggesting an artistic freedom at the time of the Mongolian rule.
Although his work is not uncommon, Ren Renfa was probably not a professional artist : he made his career as an imperial official in charge of the regulation of rivers.
According to the opinion of a Ming scholar official, the drunken characters are the five sons of a Tang emperor. The leading prince riding a magnificent black horse is the future emperor Xuanzong whose love of pleasures will much later trigger a civil war against his dynasty.
The procession of drunken princes by Ren displays revealing similarities in its composition with an elegant promenade of women painted two centuries earlier by the Song artist Li Longmian and preserved at the Taiwan Museum.
It is in a very good contrast in spite of its age and has been carefully analyzed. The paper is conformant to the Song patterns and is earlier than the Ming. The scroll includes ancient colophons as well as the seals of three Qing emperors.
There are nine characters overall in this hand scroll 2.10 m long and 35 cm high painted in ink and colors. The kings are riding in vacillating attitudes and four grooms attend to assure that their honorable masters will not fall.
The artist was named Ren Renfa and died in 1328 CE during the Yuan dynasty. He was following a tradition dating back to the Tang dynasty for pictures of horses of great beauty. The irreverent nature of the theme is a proof of wittiness rare in art history suggesting an artistic freedom at the time of the Mongolian rule.
Although his work is not uncommon, Ren Renfa was probably not a professional artist : he made his career as an imperial official in charge of the regulation of rivers.
According to the opinion of a Ming scholar official, the drunken characters are the five sons of a Tang emperor. The leading prince riding a magnificent black horse is the future emperor Xuanzong whose love of pleasures will much later trigger a civil war against his dynasty.
The procession of drunken princes by Ren displays revealing similarities in its composition with an elegant promenade of women painted two centuries earlier by the Song artist Li Longmian and preserved at the Taiwan Museum.
Explain the narrative trend for legends in the paintings and porcelains of the Yuan dynasty.
The handscroll Five Drunken Princes Returning from Court on Horseback (五王醉歸圖) by Ren Renfa (任仁發, 1255–1328), a leading painter-official of the Yuan dynasty, is one of the most celebrated narrative paintings of the period. Its two high-profile auction appearances (Poly Beijing, 4 December 2016, sold for RMB 303.6 million / US$44 million; Sotheby’s Hong Kong, 8 October 2020, sold for HK$306.5 million / US$39.5 million) underscore its status as a cultural treasure.
To understand the painting in the broader context of Yuan-dynasty narrative trends in both paintings and porcelains, especially concerning “legends,” we must look at what kinds of stories were popular and why.
1. The Story Depicted in Ren Renfa’s Painting
The painting illustrates a famous anecdote from the Cao-Wei period (Three Kingdoms era, 3rd century): the “Five Princes of Ye” — Cao Cao’s sons Cao Pi, Cao Zhi, Cao Zhang, Cao Zhi, and Cao Biao — returning drunk from a banquet given by their father. The most famous literary source is Cao Zhi’s poem 《名都篇》 (“Song of the Capital”), which contains the line “王子侯歸醉” (The princes and marquises return drunk). Although historically the event is tied to Cao Cao’s court at Ye, by the Song and Yuan periods it had become a legendary tale of fraternal camaraderie, literary talent (especially Cao Zhi’s genius), and aristocratic indulgence.
Ren Renfa transforms this into a humorous, almost satirical tableau: the five princes are so inebriated that they can barely stay on their horses, supported by grooms and attendants. The painting is both a virtuoso display of horse painting (Ren was famous for it) and a gentle parody of princely dignity.
2. Broader Narrative Trends in Yuan Painting and Porcelain Concerning Legends
During the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), under Mongol rule, Chinese scholars and artists often felt politically marginalized. This led to a pronounced interest in historical and legendary anecdotes that carried moral, escapist, or subtly political meanings.
A. In Painting (handscrolls and album leaves)
Popular legendary themes included:
B. In Porcelain (especially blue-and-white of the mid-14th century)
When blue-and-white porcelain exploded in sophistication under the late Yuan (especially 1330s–1360s, the “Tochto phase”), narrative scenes became extremely common on large jars, dishes, and flasks. The most frequently depicted legendary stories were:
3. Why Legends Flourished in Yuan Art
Ren Renfa’s Five Drunken Princes Returning on Horseback is a quintessential expression of Yuan narrative taste: a light-hearted, slightly ironic treatment of a famous pre-Song legend that celebrates literary culture and aristocratic excess while subtly reminding viewers of a lost era of Han Chinese dominance. This same fascination with historical and legendary anecdotes — whether filial, loyalist, romantic, or escapist — permeates both elite painting and the new medium of blue-and-white porcelain in the 14th century, making the Yuan one of the great ages of narrative visual storytelling in Chinese art history.
The handscroll Five Drunken Princes Returning from Court on Horseback (五王醉歸圖) by Ren Renfa (任仁發, 1255–1328), a leading painter-official of the Yuan dynasty, is one of the most celebrated narrative paintings of the period. Its two high-profile auction appearances (Poly Beijing, 4 December 2016, sold for RMB 303.6 million / US$44 million; Sotheby’s Hong Kong, 8 October 2020, sold for HK$306.5 million / US$39.5 million) underscore its status as a cultural treasure.
To understand the painting in the broader context of Yuan-dynasty narrative trends in both paintings and porcelains, especially concerning “legends,” we must look at what kinds of stories were popular and why.
1. The Story Depicted in Ren Renfa’s Painting
The painting illustrates a famous anecdote from the Cao-Wei period (Three Kingdoms era, 3rd century): the “Five Princes of Ye” — Cao Cao’s sons Cao Pi, Cao Zhi, Cao Zhang, Cao Zhi, and Cao Biao — returning drunk from a banquet given by their father. The most famous literary source is Cao Zhi’s poem 《名都篇》 (“Song of the Capital”), which contains the line “王子侯歸醉” (The princes and marquises return drunk). Although historically the event is tied to Cao Cao’s court at Ye, by the Song and Yuan periods it had become a legendary tale of fraternal camaraderie, literary talent (especially Cao Zhi’s genius), and aristocratic indulgence.
Ren Renfa transforms this into a humorous, almost satirical tableau: the five princes are so inebriated that they can barely stay on their horses, supported by grooms and attendants. The painting is both a virtuoso display of horse painting (Ren was famous for it) and a gentle parody of princely dignity.
2. Broader Narrative Trends in Yuan Painting and Porcelain Concerning Legends
During the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), under Mongol rule, Chinese scholars and artists often felt politically marginalized. This led to a pronounced interest in historical and legendary anecdotes that carried moral, escapist, or subtly political meanings.
A. In Painting (handscrolls and album leaves)
Popular legendary themes included:
- Filial piety legends (Twenty-four Filial Exemplars stories, such as Guo Ju burying his son, or Wang Xiang lying on ice)
- Recluse and immortality legends (the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, the Four Greybeards of Mount Shang, Laozi, Zhuangzi, Liezi)
- Loyalty and righteous knight-errant tales (Jing Ke’s attempted assassination of Qin Shi Huang, Zhuge Liang legends)
- Romantic and tragic love legends (Xiao and Qing — the “White Snake” story begins to appear, Butterfly Lovers)
- Literati indulgence legends (the Five Drunken Princes, Ruan Ji’s “drunkenness” from the Bamboo Grove, Li Bai’s drunken poetry)
B. In Porcelain (especially blue-and-white of the mid-14th century)
When blue-and-white porcelain exploded in sophistication under the late Yuan (especially 1330s–1360s, the “Tochto phase”), narrative scenes became extremely common on large jars, dishes, and flasks. The most frequently depicted legendary stories were:
- The Ghost of Zhong Kui hunting demons (very common — protective meaning)
- Wang Xizhi Observing Geese (literati elegance)
- Su Wu herding sheep (loyalty to Han dynasty while captive among the Xiongnu — highly resonant under Mongol rule by “northern barbarians”)
- Guo Ziyi’s success and wealth (filial piety and loyalty rewarded)
- The Four Loves (Zhou Dunyi loving lotus, Tao Yuanming loving chrysanthemums, Lin Hejing loving cranes and plum blossoms)
- Knife-horse figures (xiao yong (brave generals from Three Kingdoms or Tang, such as Zhao Yun or Xue Rengui)
- Immortals and Daoist paradises (Eight Immortals, Queen Mother of the West)
3. Why Legends Flourished in Yuan Art
- Political alienation: Han Chinese literati could not openly criticize Mongol rule, so they turned to historical allegory and historical legends (loyalty to Han in Su Wu, resistance in Jing Ke).
- Escapism and humor: Drunkenness, reclusion, and immortality offered psychological escape (Ren Renfa’s humorous take on the princes fits perfectly).
- Commercial and export demand: By the late Yuan, blue-and-white porcelain was being made partly for Middle-Eastern and Southeast-Asian markets, which loved narrative scenes with moral or magical content.
- Technical advances: The development of large handscroll format and underglaze cobalt painting allowed complex multi-figure stories to be rendered with unprecedented detail.
Ren Renfa’s Five Drunken Princes Returning on Horseback is a quintessential expression of Yuan narrative taste: a light-hearted, slightly ironic treatment of a famous pre-Song legend that celebrates literary culture and aristocratic excess while subtly reminding viewers of a lost era of Han Chinese dominance. This same fascination with historical and legendary anecdotes — whether filial, loyalist, romantic, or escapist — permeates both elite painting and the new medium of blue-and-white porcelain in the 14th century, making the Yuan one of the great ages of narrative visual storytelling in Chinese art history.
1338 Listening to the Rain in a Mountain Villa by Wu Zhen
2016 SOLD for RMB 170M by Beijing Council
Wu Zhen was a gifted artist who voluntarily lived in reclusion. His skill was not praised in his lifetime. His art mingles ink painting, poetry and calligraphy.
A handscroll in ink and light color on paper 28 x 203 cm is titled Listening to the Rain in a Mountain Villa. It is depicting a landscape at Jiangnan, shrouded in mist and cloud and populated by a few characters and moored boats. The composition provides a beautiful harmony between the rocks in the lake in the foreground and the peaks on the horizon.
The scroll was created in the summer of the fourth year of the Zhiyuan reign matching 1338 CE, when Wu Zhen was 59 years old, as referred in an autograph poetic inscription.
It was sold by Beijing Council International Auction (also known as Beijing Kuangshi) for RMB 172M on December 6, 2016, from a lower estimate of RMB 60M. It is illustrated in a pre sale report shared by ChinaDaily.
A handscroll in ink and light color on paper 28 x 203 cm is titled Listening to the Rain in a Mountain Villa. It is depicting a landscape at Jiangnan, shrouded in mist and cloud and populated by a few characters and moored boats. The composition provides a beautiful harmony between the rocks in the lake in the foreground and the peaks on the horizon.
The scroll was created in the summer of the fourth year of the Zhiyuan reign matching 1338 CE, when Wu Zhen was 59 years old, as referred in an autograph poetic inscription.
It was sold by Beijing Council International Auction (also known as Beijing Kuangshi) for RMB 172M on December 6, 2016, from a lower estimate of RMB 60M. It is illustrated in a pre sale report shared by ChinaDaily.
masterpiece
1347-1350 Fuchun by Huang Gongwang
small fragment in Zhejiang Museum, Hangzhou and large fragment in Taipei Museum
Huang Gongwang, a scholar-official of the Southern school, had made a breakthrough in the art of landscape imaging. Disillusioned by the political turpitudes, he spent his old age in the Fuchun mountains near Hangzhou. He was acknowledged by Dong Qichang as the best master of the Yuan dynasty.
He constructed his landscape by very dry brush strokes and very light ink wash. His masterpiece is a long handscroll resulting from a three year work, 1347 to 1350 CE. Starting from observation, the artist builds an ideal Taoist landscape of mountains and rivers in which he adds many tiny details. The whole is integrating the flow of the four seasons. This realistic style departs from the yin and yang inspiration of landscape shaping. That scroll was acquired by Dong Qichang in 1596 CE.
The image of the small fragment is shared by Wikimedia.
He constructed his landscape by very dry brush strokes and very light ink wash. His masterpiece is a long handscroll resulting from a three year work, 1347 to 1350 CE. Starting from observation, the artist builds an ideal Taoist landscape of mountains and rivers in which he adds many tiny details. The whole is integrating the flow of the four seasons. This realistic style departs from the yin and yang inspiration of landscape shaping. That scroll was acquired by Dong Qichang in 1596 CE.
The image of the small fragment is shared by Wikimedia.
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WANG MENG
Intro
The Chinese culture comes from a very strong literary tradition mixed with mysticism. In the 11th century CE, Mi Fu opened the way to the themes of the literate landscape, and for several centuries the graphic arts were often devoted to these ancient stories.
A maternal grandson of Zhao Mengfu, Wang Meng is one of the four great literati masters of the Yuan dynasty. He incorporated the techniques of Tang and Song dynasties. He survived the Yuan but was accused to support a rebellion against the Ming emperor and died in jail.
In the theme of the immensity of nature contemplated by the sage, Wang practiced two opposite styles in a single artwork. The human dwellings and occupationals are rendered in a sharp drawing of very thin brushstroke. The lush surrounding of trees and mountains provides the feeling of infinity in a very dense texture. The bare rocks escape the realism for providing an unbalanced emotion.
Qiu is a sacred mountain with a Buddhist temple. In his quest for expressing another reality and atmosphere, Wang Meng realized a mountain view in his signature style of varying the texture as necessary. He mingles curly brush lines and dense dots.
This hanging scroll in color on paper 135 x 35 cm does not add a narration to the view of towering mountains over a pleasant valley. It was sold for RMB 137M by Poly on June 3, 2010, lot 2881. This piece bears the seals of Wang Meng and of Wang Shuming that identified him in his early career. The Qiu location is reported by the artist.
A maternal grandson of Zhao Mengfu, Wang Meng is one of the four great literati masters of the Yuan dynasty. He incorporated the techniques of Tang and Song dynasties. He survived the Yuan but was accused to support a rebellion against the Ming emperor and died in jail.
In the theme of the immensity of nature contemplated by the sage, Wang practiced two opposite styles in a single artwork. The human dwellings and occupationals are rendered in a sharp drawing of very thin brushstroke. The lush surrounding of trees and mountains provides the feeling of infinity in a very dense texture. The bare rocks escape the realism for providing an unbalanced emotion.
Qiu is a sacred mountain with a Buddhist temple. In his quest for expressing another reality and atmosphere, Wang Meng realized a mountain view in his signature style of varying the texture as necessary. He mingles curly brush lines and dense dots.
This hanging scroll in color on paper 135 x 35 cm does not add a narration to the view of towering mountains over a pleasant valley. It was sold for RMB 137M by Poly on June 3, 2010, lot 2881. This piece bears the seals of Wang Meng and of Wang Shuming that identified him in his early career. The Qiu location is reported by the artist.
1
1350 Ge Zhichuan Relocating
2011 SOLD for RMB 400M by Poly
On June 4, 2011, Poly sold for RMB 400M a hanging scroll painted in ink and wash circa 1350 CE by Wang Meng on the theme of the migration of Ge Hong to the sacred mountains. The provenance of this artwork has been established over six centuries. The image is shared by Wikimedia.
Ge Hong, also named Ge Zhichuan, lived 1,000 years before Wang in the Eastern Jin dynasty. Nicknamed the Little Immortal Old Man, he was an alchemist, a doctor and above all a Taoist master. He was going to study the secrets of immortality in the Luofu mountains. He stayed there for eight years. The image by Wang shows Ge and his suite passing through a valley under a very rocky landscape. Seven poems have been added.
asked to Grok :
Compare with the version kept in the Palace Museum, Beijing.
Grok thought :
The painting "Ge Zhichuan Relocating" (also known as "Zhichuan Resettlement") by Yuan Dynasty artist Wang Meng (c. 1308–1385) was sold at the Beijing Poly Auction on June 4, 2011, for RMB 402.5 million (approximately US$62.1 million), setting a record at the time for the most expensive Chinese artwork sold at auction. This hanging scroll, created circa 1350 in ink wash on paper, depicts the Eastern Jin Dynasty scholar and alchemist Ge Hong (styled Zhichuan) relocating his dwelling to Luofu Mountain to pursue alchemy. The work originated from a private collection and reflects Wang Meng's characteristic style of intricate, layered landscapes that evoke a sense of utopian freedom and scholarly introspection. No specific dimensions are publicly documented for this version, and it has been preserved through centuries of private ownership before the sale.
The Palace Museum in Beijing holds another version of the painting, titled "Ge Zhichuan Moving to the Mountains" (or "Ge Zhichuan Relocating"), dated to around the 1360s or 1370. This hanging scroll measures 139 x 58 cm and is executed in ink and colors on paper. It similarly portrays Ge Hong's relocation amid a mountainous landscape, showcasing Wang Meng's mastery of dense, textured brushwork to create a harmonious yet complex natural scene.
Both explore the same theme of Ge Hong's relocation, employing Wang Meng's signature complex brushwork to convey philosophical retreat into nature. They share motifs like winding paths, scholars, and enveloping mountains symbolizing escape from worldly chaos.
The earlier date of Poly's version suggests it may represent a formative stage in the artist's exploration of the theme; potentially more monochromatic and austere.
For the Palace Museum version, later creation with documented use of colors, possibly showing refined techniques from Wang Meng's evolving style; larger documented size and institutional preservation allow for extensive academic analysis.
These are distinct works on the same subject, not copies of each other, highlighting Wang Meng's recurring interest in this narrative as one of the "Four Masters of the Yuan Dynasty." The Poly version's high auction value underscores the market demand for rare private examples, while the Palace version remains a cornerstone for public study of Yuan landscape painting.
Ge Hong, also named Ge Zhichuan, lived 1,000 years before Wang in the Eastern Jin dynasty. Nicknamed the Little Immortal Old Man, he was an alchemist, a doctor and above all a Taoist master. He was going to study the secrets of immortality in the Luofu mountains. He stayed there for eight years. The image by Wang shows Ge and his suite passing through a valley under a very rocky landscape. Seven poems have been added.
asked to Grok :
Compare with the version kept in the Palace Museum, Beijing.
Grok thought :
The painting "Ge Zhichuan Relocating" (also known as "Zhichuan Resettlement") by Yuan Dynasty artist Wang Meng (c. 1308–1385) was sold at the Beijing Poly Auction on June 4, 2011, for RMB 402.5 million (approximately US$62.1 million), setting a record at the time for the most expensive Chinese artwork sold at auction. This hanging scroll, created circa 1350 in ink wash on paper, depicts the Eastern Jin Dynasty scholar and alchemist Ge Hong (styled Zhichuan) relocating his dwelling to Luofu Mountain to pursue alchemy. The work originated from a private collection and reflects Wang Meng's characteristic style of intricate, layered landscapes that evoke a sense of utopian freedom and scholarly introspection. No specific dimensions are publicly documented for this version, and it has been preserved through centuries of private ownership before the sale.
The Palace Museum in Beijing holds another version of the painting, titled "Ge Zhichuan Moving to the Mountains" (or "Ge Zhichuan Relocating"), dated to around the 1360s or 1370. This hanging scroll measures 139 x 58 cm and is executed in ink and colors on paper. It similarly portrays Ge Hong's relocation amid a mountainous landscape, showcasing Wang Meng's mastery of dense, textured brushwork to create a harmonious yet complex natural scene.
Both explore the same theme of Ge Hong's relocation, employing Wang Meng's signature complex brushwork to convey philosophical retreat into nature. They share motifs like winding paths, scholars, and enveloping mountains symbolizing escape from worldly chaos.
The earlier date of Poly's version suggests it may represent a formative stage in the artist's exploration of the theme; potentially more monochromatic and austere.
For the Palace Museum version, later creation with documented use of colors, possibly showing refined techniques from Wang Meng's evolving style; larger documented size and institutional preservation allow for extensive academic analysis.
These are distinct works on the same subject, not copies of each other, highlighting Wang Meng's recurring interest in this narrative as one of the "Four Masters of the Yuan Dynasty." The Poly version's high auction value underscores the market demand for rare private examples, while the Palace version remains a cornerstone for public study of Yuan landscape painting.
1 bis
masterpiece
1360 Ge Zhichuan Relocating
Palace Museum, Beijing
The Palace Museum in Beijing has a 139 x 58 cm scroll by the same artist on the same theme, dated around 1360, with another landscape in an oblique perspective.
The image is shared by Wikimedia.
The image is shared by Wikimedia.
2
Di Yan Tu
2023 SOLD for RMB 290M by China Guardian
In the theme of the smallness of man within the lush forest in front of majestic bare mountains, the Di Yan Tu hanging scroll by Wang Meng had been highly praised by the Qianlong emperor. It was recorded in the Qing catalogue Shiqu Baoji and is a rare example with the seven imperial appreciation seals, beside eight usual Qianlong seals. It has a five character poem inscribed by that emperor in running script and an inscription from the 11th year of Qianlong, 1746 CE.
The narrative input in thin lines is centered by a thatched cottage facing a stream, shaded by miscellaneous trees, while a small bridge is leading to the other side. Behind it, layers of steep mountains constitute an ideal world for the literati. A very young boy is operating an inkstone beside the stream. Inside the house with the pavilion open, a lonely seated man with a pointed beard is listening to the wonderful sound of the flowing water and watching the beautiful scenery including the clouds and the splashing of the waterfall.
The scenery and character details in this painting may be a portrayal of the aging artist in his secluded life after he abandoned his official position at the end of the Yuan dynasty.
This ink and color on paper 65 x 34 cm had been made by the artist for a friend. It was sold for RMB 290M by China Guardian on November 30, 2023, lot 2195. It is illustrated including many details in the post sale article shared by The Value.
The narrative input in thin lines is centered by a thatched cottage facing a stream, shaded by miscellaneous trees, while a small bridge is leading to the other side. Behind it, layers of steep mountains constitute an ideal world for the literati. A very young boy is operating an inkstone beside the stream. Inside the house with the pavilion open, a lonely seated man with a pointed beard is listening to the wonderful sound of the flowing water and watching the beautiful scenery including the clouds and the splashing of the waterfall.
The scenery and character details in this painting may be a portrayal of the aging artist in his secluded life after he abandoned his official position at the end of the Yuan dynasty.
This ink and color on paper 65 x 34 cm had been made by the artist for a friend. It was sold for RMB 290M by China Guardian on November 30, 2023, lot 2195. It is illustrated including many details in the post sale article shared by The Value.
3
Zhilan
2019 SOLD for RMB 146M by Poly
Zhilan is a legendary Buddhist hermit monk who lived in a forest in Baoshi mountains. He was famous for his culture and chanted praises night and day.
His story is revived by Wang Meng with a poem by Yu He in a 25 cm wide handscroll. The picture is 103 cm long with 230 cm overall for the inscription and postscript.
The scenery is centered with the thatched pavilion in thin lines inhabited by the monk. The yard adjacent to a river downstream some waterfalls includes Buddhist devotion statues. Giant orchids and mushrooms provide an idea of fragrance. Steep mountains and cliffs with trees of various colors are blocking out the horizon. Tiny characters chat.
This piece entered the imperial collection in the late 14th century, from which it was taken out by Pu Yi in 1923. It was entered by Qianlong in the shiqu baoji. It was sold for RMB 146M by Poly on December 3, 2019, lot 3541. It is illustrated by ChinaDaily in the 2019 year ender review.
His story is revived by Wang Meng with a poem by Yu He in a 25 cm wide handscroll. The picture is 103 cm long with 230 cm overall for the inscription and postscript.
The scenery is centered with the thatched pavilion in thin lines inhabited by the monk. The yard adjacent to a river downstream some waterfalls includes Buddhist devotion statues. Giant orchids and mushrooms provide an idea of fragrance. Steep mountains and cliffs with trees of various colors are blocking out the horizon. Tiny characters chat.
This piece entered the imperial collection in the late 14th century, from which it was taken out by Pu Yi in 1923. It was entered by Qianlong in the shiqu baoji. It was sold for RMB 146M by Poly on December 3, 2019, lot 3541. It is illustrated by ChinaDaily in the 2019 year ender review.
1350 Guan Jar
2005 SOLD for £ 15.7M by Christie's
After decades of fierce conquests, the Mongols invaded China. Now named Yuan, their dynasty succeeded the Song. After the perfection in material, robustness and geometry under the Song, the Chinese porcelain got a new artistic development with the Yuan.
The Yuan sought to establish a synthesis of Mongolian and Chinese traditions, but they were foreigners. They strengthened their position by facilitating maritime and land communication with other Asian countries, reviving the Silk Road. At that time the Chinese ceramics, especially those from Jingdezhen, are the only ones that are hygienic enough to bring no health risk to the user.
The Jingdezhen kilns were already operational under the Tang and Song but their activity is much developed by the Yuan, experiencing a sustainable development towards the end of this dynasty, from around 1350 CE.
The painting under glaze and the cobalt blue are both imports made by the Yuan from the Muslim world for the porcelains of Jingdezhen. The white porcelain was painted on the moulded body with blue figures, and then glazed and fired. The excellent quality of the cobalt imported from Iran enabled a color gradation up to the deep blue, inviting to exquisite figurative motifs.
The globular guan shape, previously used in terracotta, was much appreciated for the top end Yuan porcelain jars.
Very fond of warlike feats, the Yuan Mongols enjoyed the zaju, a form of drama invented by their predecessors the Song. The zaju was a multidisciplinary staged show with recitations, songs, dance and mime. The Yuan zajus narrated the epic legends of the Han or the Tang.
Two forms of porcelain wares were favourable to illustrate the zaju : the guan jar used for the wine and the meiping vase for arranging plum blossom branches. The cobalt drawing filled a circular scene all around the body.
On July 12, 2005, Christie's sold for £ 15.7M a Yuan guan jar 33 cm high illustrated in an intense blue from the finest cobalt, lot 88. It is similar in its construction with seven other surviving jars probably from the same workshop in Jingdezhen ca 1350. All but one have a band of breaking waves on the short straight neck. It is similar in its skillful painting with a vase inscribed to the equivalent of 1351 CE.
Its hectic story, not otherwise known in the porcelains, had occurred when the presumably invincible state of Yan attempted to conquer the state of Qi, a theme that indeed appealed the Mongol conquerors of China. The cart of the Qi emissary is pulled by two felines. This figure was directly inspired from a woodblock print made in the 1320s.
The image is titled Guigu on a banner, referring to the home city of a strategist of the action.
From the same series as the jar sold for £ 15.7M by Christie's in 2005, a 27.3 cm high cobalt blue guan jar was sold for HK $ 47M by Christie's on November 28, 2005, lot 1403. It is inscribed within the picture with the three characters Jin Xiang Ting meaning Pavilion of fragrant brocades.
Painted in deep and vibrant cobalt blue, it displays two pairs of standing figures in court attire in a garden beside a lone pavilion. It is representing the zaju of a troubled romance in the reign of the Xuanzong emperor of the Tang.
A Yuan jar decorated with fish was sold for HK $ 40M by Sotheby's on October 8, 2022, lot 6. Its baluster guan shape is 31 cm high and 34 cm in its larger diameter.
It is painted in cobalt blue of four fishes in different species, modeled from Song paintings. The naturalism of swimming fish was then considered as an artistic feat on which some artists were specializing. The association of fish and water is a Daoist symbol of spiritual freedom.
The magnificent underglaze blue hues from light to deep assess a perfect mastery of the recently imported cobalt by the Jingdezhen potters. This one has the same band of breaking waves on its short straight neck as the zaju jars.
A fish jar with the same design is kept at the Tokyo Fuji Art Museum. The theme was re-used a century later for the Xuande emperor of the Ming.
The Yuan sought to establish a synthesis of Mongolian and Chinese traditions, but they were foreigners. They strengthened their position by facilitating maritime and land communication with other Asian countries, reviving the Silk Road. At that time the Chinese ceramics, especially those from Jingdezhen, are the only ones that are hygienic enough to bring no health risk to the user.
The Jingdezhen kilns were already operational under the Tang and Song but their activity is much developed by the Yuan, experiencing a sustainable development towards the end of this dynasty, from around 1350 CE.
The painting under glaze and the cobalt blue are both imports made by the Yuan from the Muslim world for the porcelains of Jingdezhen. The white porcelain was painted on the moulded body with blue figures, and then glazed and fired. The excellent quality of the cobalt imported from Iran enabled a color gradation up to the deep blue, inviting to exquisite figurative motifs.
The globular guan shape, previously used in terracotta, was much appreciated for the top end Yuan porcelain jars.
Very fond of warlike feats, the Yuan Mongols enjoyed the zaju, a form of drama invented by their predecessors the Song. The zaju was a multidisciplinary staged show with recitations, songs, dance and mime. The Yuan zajus narrated the epic legends of the Han or the Tang.
Two forms of porcelain wares were favourable to illustrate the zaju : the guan jar used for the wine and the meiping vase for arranging plum blossom branches. The cobalt drawing filled a circular scene all around the body.
On July 12, 2005, Christie's sold for £ 15.7M a Yuan guan jar 33 cm high illustrated in an intense blue from the finest cobalt, lot 88. It is similar in its construction with seven other surviving jars probably from the same workshop in Jingdezhen ca 1350. All but one have a band of breaking waves on the short straight neck. It is similar in its skillful painting with a vase inscribed to the equivalent of 1351 CE.
Its hectic story, not otherwise known in the porcelains, had occurred when the presumably invincible state of Yan attempted to conquer the state of Qi, a theme that indeed appealed the Mongol conquerors of China. The cart of the Qi emissary is pulled by two felines. This figure was directly inspired from a woodblock print made in the 1320s.
The image is titled Guigu on a banner, referring to the home city of a strategist of the action.
From the same series as the jar sold for £ 15.7M by Christie's in 2005, a 27.3 cm high cobalt blue guan jar was sold for HK $ 47M by Christie's on November 28, 2005, lot 1403. It is inscribed within the picture with the three characters Jin Xiang Ting meaning Pavilion of fragrant brocades.
Painted in deep and vibrant cobalt blue, it displays two pairs of standing figures in court attire in a garden beside a lone pavilion. It is representing the zaju of a troubled romance in the reign of the Xuanzong emperor of the Tang.
A Yuan jar decorated with fish was sold for HK $ 40M by Sotheby's on October 8, 2022, lot 6. Its baluster guan shape is 31 cm high and 34 cm in its larger diameter.
It is painted in cobalt blue of four fishes in different species, modeled from Song paintings. The naturalism of swimming fish was then considered as an artistic feat on which some artists were specializing. The association of fish and water is a Daoist symbol of spiritual freedom.
The magnificent underglaze blue hues from light to deep assess a perfect mastery of the recently imported cobalt by the Jingdezhen potters. This one has the same band of breaking waves on its short straight neck as the zaju jars.
A fish jar with the same design is kept at the Tokyo Fuji Art Museum. The theme was re-used a century later for the Xuande emperor of the Ming.
1361 Calligraphy by Rao Jie
2025 SOLD for HK$ 250M by Sotheby's
Rao Jie was a writer and calligrapher during the Yuan-Ming transition. He called himself Huagai Mountain Woodcutter, Drunken Woodcutter, Awakened Woodcutter, Awakened Old Man, Drunk Old Man and Zixuan Cave Woodcutter.
A handscroll in ink on paper 30 x 600 cm by Rao Jie transcribes in a dynamic cursive script two classic Chinese essays, a farewell to Meng Dongye by Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan’s Zi Ren Zhuan. An inscription provides the date 'Xinchou', which means the 21st year of Zhizheng matching 1361 CE, when Rao fled to Suzhou to avoid the chaos after serving as the vice-chancellor of Huainan Province.
100 seals and several colophons attest of the admiration of readers for several centuries for the unrestrained freedom, boldness, rhythm and vitality of the brushstroke. The Qianlong emperor appreciated its "divinely transmitted purity" and had the work recorded in the Shiqu Baoji art repertory.
This manuscript resurfaces in a nearly time capsule condition after a century in oblivion. It was sold for HK $ 250M from a lower estimate of HK $ 10M by Sotheby's on April 10, 2025, lot 2528. Please watch the video shared by the auction house.
A handscroll in ink on paper 30 x 600 cm by Rao Jie transcribes in a dynamic cursive script two classic Chinese essays, a farewell to Meng Dongye by Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan’s Zi Ren Zhuan. An inscription provides the date 'Xinchou', which means the 21st year of Zhizheng matching 1361 CE, when Rao fled to Suzhou to avoid the chaos after serving as the vice-chancellor of Huainan Province.
100 seals and several colophons attest of the admiration of readers for several centuries for the unrestrained freedom, boldness, rhythm and vitality of the brushstroke. The Qianlong emperor appreciated its "divinely transmitted purity" and had the work recorded in the Shiqu Baoji art repertory.
This manuscript resurfaces in a nearly time capsule condition after a century in oblivion. It was sold for HK $ 250M from a lower estimate of HK $ 10M by Sotheby's on April 10, 2025, lot 2528. Please watch the video shared by the auction house.
Calligraphy by Rao Jie, sold by Sotheby's on April 10, 2025, lot 2528. Significance in the history of Chinese calligraphy.
Overview of the Artwork
The calligraphy work in question is Calligraphy in Cursive Script (草書韓愈柳宗元文) by Rao Jie (饒介, c. 1310–1370s), a Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) scholar-official, poet, and master calligrapher. This monumental handscroll, measuring 29.8 x 599.1 cm (approximately 10 meters long), was executed in bold, spontaneous cursive script (caoshu) on paper using ink. It transcribes two Tang dynasty literary classics: Han Yu's Song Meng Dongye Xu (送孟東野序, "Farewell to Meng Dongye," 802 CE), a prose piece exploring themes of unrecognized talent and the inevitability of expression, and Liu Zongyuan's Zi Ren Zhuan (梓人傳, "The Tale of the Carpenter," 798 CE), a parable on moral governance and self-reliance. The scroll's frontispiece bears an inscription by Emperor Qianlong (r. 1735–1796) titled "Divinely Transmitted Purity" (神傳醇潔), accompanied by his seal, underscoring its imperial prestige. It also features over 100 collectors' seals (chops) from a 700-year provenance, including those of Ming collector Xiang Yuanbian (1525–1590), Qing imperial collections, and later Japanese owners, as well as colophons by figures like Dou Mu and Ishikawa Shuntai.
This piece is the longest surviving example of Rao Jie's work and represents a rare Yuan-era treasure, having been out of public view for decades prior to the sale.
The Sotheby's Sale
On April 10, 2025, during Sotheby's Hong Kong Fine Classical Chinese Paintings auction, Lot 2528 sparked an unprecedented 95-minute bidding war—the longest single-lot battle in the house's history—with over 200 bids. Estimated at HK$10–20 million (US$1.3–2.6 million), it hammered at HK$213.5 million (US$27.5 million) and sold for a final HK$250.1 million (US$32.2 million) including fees to an anonymous phone bidder. This result set a new auction record for Chinese calligraphy at Sotheby's and marked the most expensive artwork sold globally in 2025 up to that point, providing a significant boost to the post-pandemic Chinese art market amid broader economic caution.
Rao Jie: Life and Artistic Context
Rao Jie, a native of Jiangxi province, served as an official under the Mongol Yuan court during its declining Zhizheng era (1341–1368), a time of political instability and cultural flux as the dynasty neared collapse. As a literatus navigating this transition, he embodied the scholar-official ideal, blending administrative duties with literary and artistic pursuits. He was a patron to the poet Gao Qi (1336–1374), later canonized as one of the Ming dynasty's greatest literary figures, and instructed the influential early Ming calligrapher Song Ke (1327–1387). Contemporary chronicler Tao Zongyi (1316–?) lauded Rao in Essentials of Calligraphic History for his mastery of cursive script, likening it to the "wild cursive" (kuangcao) dynamism of Tang masters Zhang Xu (c. 685–759) and Huaisu (737–c. 799), known for their intoxicated, expressive strokes.
Rao's style fused the elegant, fluid structures of the "Two Wangs"—Wang Xizhi (303–361, the "sage of calligraphy") and his son Wang Xianzhi (344–386)—with the kinetic energy of Tang wild cursive, creating a bold, rhythmic form that prioritized spontaneity and inner vitality over rigid form. Influences from Song dynasty figures like Su Shi (1037–1101) and Tang's Yan Zhenqing (709–785) are evident in his structured yet liberated lines. His choice of Tang prose texts may reflect personal introspection amid Yuan turmoil, transforming philosophical musings into a visual symphony of ink and brush.
Significance in the History of Chinese Calligraphy
Rao Jie's work holds profound importance across multiple dimensions of Chinese calligraphy's 3,000-year evolution, where the art form has transcended mere writing to embody philosophical, aesthetic, and cultural essence—often deemed superior to painting as the purest expression of the literati spirit.
Overview of the Artwork
The calligraphy work in question is Calligraphy in Cursive Script (草書韓愈柳宗元文) by Rao Jie (饒介, c. 1310–1370s), a Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) scholar-official, poet, and master calligrapher. This monumental handscroll, measuring 29.8 x 599.1 cm (approximately 10 meters long), was executed in bold, spontaneous cursive script (caoshu) on paper using ink. It transcribes two Tang dynasty literary classics: Han Yu's Song Meng Dongye Xu (送孟東野序, "Farewell to Meng Dongye," 802 CE), a prose piece exploring themes of unrecognized talent and the inevitability of expression, and Liu Zongyuan's Zi Ren Zhuan (梓人傳, "The Tale of the Carpenter," 798 CE), a parable on moral governance and self-reliance. The scroll's frontispiece bears an inscription by Emperor Qianlong (r. 1735–1796) titled "Divinely Transmitted Purity" (神傳醇潔), accompanied by his seal, underscoring its imperial prestige. It also features over 100 collectors' seals (chops) from a 700-year provenance, including those of Ming collector Xiang Yuanbian (1525–1590), Qing imperial collections, and later Japanese owners, as well as colophons by figures like Dou Mu and Ishikawa Shuntai.
This piece is the longest surviving example of Rao Jie's work and represents a rare Yuan-era treasure, having been out of public view for decades prior to the sale.
The Sotheby's Sale
On April 10, 2025, during Sotheby's Hong Kong Fine Classical Chinese Paintings auction, Lot 2528 sparked an unprecedented 95-minute bidding war—the longest single-lot battle in the house's history—with over 200 bids. Estimated at HK$10–20 million (US$1.3–2.6 million), it hammered at HK$213.5 million (US$27.5 million) and sold for a final HK$250.1 million (US$32.2 million) including fees to an anonymous phone bidder. This result set a new auction record for Chinese calligraphy at Sotheby's and marked the most expensive artwork sold globally in 2025 up to that point, providing a significant boost to the post-pandemic Chinese art market amid broader economic caution.
Rao Jie: Life and Artistic Context
Rao Jie, a native of Jiangxi province, served as an official under the Mongol Yuan court during its declining Zhizheng era (1341–1368), a time of political instability and cultural flux as the dynasty neared collapse. As a literatus navigating this transition, he embodied the scholar-official ideal, blending administrative duties with literary and artistic pursuits. He was a patron to the poet Gao Qi (1336–1374), later canonized as one of the Ming dynasty's greatest literary figures, and instructed the influential early Ming calligrapher Song Ke (1327–1387). Contemporary chronicler Tao Zongyi (1316–?) lauded Rao in Essentials of Calligraphic History for his mastery of cursive script, likening it to the "wild cursive" (kuangcao) dynamism of Tang masters Zhang Xu (c. 685–759) and Huaisu (737–c. 799), known for their intoxicated, expressive strokes.
Rao's style fused the elegant, fluid structures of the "Two Wangs"—Wang Xizhi (303–361, the "sage of calligraphy") and his son Wang Xianzhi (344–386)—with the kinetic energy of Tang wild cursive, creating a bold, rhythmic form that prioritized spontaneity and inner vitality over rigid form. Influences from Song dynasty figures like Su Shi (1037–1101) and Tang's Yan Zhenqing (709–785) are evident in his structured yet liberated lines. His choice of Tang prose texts may reflect personal introspection amid Yuan turmoil, transforming philosophical musings into a visual symphony of ink and brush.
Significance in the History of Chinese Calligraphy
Rao Jie's work holds profound importance across multiple dimensions of Chinese calligraphy's 3,000-year evolution, where the art form has transcended mere writing to embody philosophical, aesthetic, and cultural essence—often deemed superior to painting as the purest expression of the literati spirit.
- Stylistic Innovation in Cursive Script: Cursive (caoshu), one of the "five scripts" (alongside seal, clerical, regular, and running), emerged in the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) for speed but flowered in the Tang as an expressive vehicle for emotion, especially among Chan Buddhist monks who valued its unrestrained flow. Rao's Yuan-era cursive bridges Tang exuberance with Ming restraint, infusing classical models with personal vigor. His "kinetic expression of thought" elevates prose into abstract art, where brush dynamics—bold pauses, sweeping arcs, and varying ink density—convey the texts' themes of frustration and moral clarity. This synthesis influenced Ming successors like Song Ke, contributing to the dynasty's revival of classical styles post-Yuan conquest.
- Imperial and Canonical Status: Selected by Qianlong in 1747 for inclusion in the Model Books of the Three Rarities Hall (Sanxitang Fatie)—a set of 236 stone-engraved rubbings of masterpieces from the Three Kingdoms (220–280) to Ming—the scroll was reproduced for imperial dissemination, ensuring Rao's place in the canon. Qianlong's frontispiece and seal affirm its "divine" purity, aligning it with treasures like Wang Xizhi's Preface to the Orchid Pavilion Collection (Lanting Xu, 353 CE). Over 70 collectors' seals document its journey through elite hands, from Ming connoisseurs to Qing emperors and post-1911 Japanese collectors (including a cousin of Puyi, the last emperor), symbolizing calligraphy's role as a "time capsule" of cultural transmission.
- Cultural and Historical Resonance: Amid Yuan-Ming transition, Rao's scroll captures literati resilience under foreign rule, echoing Tang texts' laments on unrecognized genius—a subtle critique of Mongol governance. In broader history, it exemplifies calligraphy's integration with poetry and philosophy, as per the Confucian triad of "poetry, calligraphy, painting." Yuan works like this are rarities, prized for their scarcity compared to abundant Song (960–1279) or Ming output, highlighting the era's introspective "literati painting" ethos. Its 2025 sale underscores ongoing market reverence for pre-modern masterpieces, revitalizing interest in classical forms amid modern digital shifts.
