Years 1680-1699
Except otherwise stated, all results include the premium.
See also : Ancient England Early Qing Furniture Chinese furniture Travel 17th century books Stradivarius Sciences 1600-1800 Physics Astronomy
See also : Ancient England Early Qing Furniture Chinese furniture Travel 17th century books Stradivarius Sciences 1600-1800 Physics Astronomy
early Kangxi pair of Cabinets
2017 SOLD for RMB 99M by Poly
Pair of Huanghuali-wood ‘Phoenix’ Cabinets from Kangxi Period, sold for RMB 99M by Beijing Poly on December 2017, lot 5178, post sale report by The Value Dec 21, 2017. Provide a detailed description. Define the evolution from Wanli style huanghuali cabinets.
Detailed Description of the Pair of Huanghuali-Wood ‘Phoenix’ CabinetsThe Pair of Huanghuali-wood ‘Phoenix’ Cabinets from the Kangxi Period (1662–1722) of the Qing Dynasty represent a magnificent and rare example of Chinese classical furniture, renowned for their grandeur, craftsmanship, and symbolic motifs.
Crafted from huanghuali (Dalbergia odorifera), a highly prized hardwood known for its rich golden-brown hue, fine grain, and subtle fragrance, these cabinets feature intricate carvings of phoenixes, which symbolize virtue, grace, and prosperity in Chinese culture. The phoenix motifs are likely integrated into the panels or structural elements, adding to the cabinets' auspicious and imperial connotations, as the phoenix was often associated with the empress and harmony.
Each cabinet measures an imposing 314 cm in height, 156.6 cm in width, and 77.5 cm in depth, making them substantial pieces designed for prominent display in grand halls or scholarly quarters.
As a pair, they embody the Qing preference for symmetry in interior design, often placed side by side to create visual balance. The construction employs traditional joinery techniques, such as mortise-and-tenon, ensuring durability without the need for nails, while the wood's natural patterns are highlighted to enhance aesthetic appeal. These cabinets would have served practical purposes, such as storing garments, scrolls, or precious items, while also functioning as status symbols for elite households.
Historically, huanghuali furniture from the Kangxi Period reflects the era's blend of Ming influences with emerging Qing robustness, produced during a time of imperial stability and cultural flourishing under Emperor Kangxi. The provenance traces back to Long Shun Cheng Furniture in Beijing (1956–1983), then to the collection of renowned Chinese film director Li Han-hsiang (1983–1996), who was a noted collector of classical Chinese art. They were previously sold at China Guardian's auction of the Li Han-hsiang Collection on October 9, 1995 (lot 848).
At the Beijing Poly Auction's "Yu Gong II - The Grand Panorama" evening sale on December 18, 2017 (lot 5178), the cabinets were the top lot, starting at RMB 42 million and fetching a hammer price of RMB 86 million after intense bidding. Including the buyer's premium, they realized RMB 98.9 million (approximately US$15.5 million at the time), setting a then-record for Chinese classical furniture. The post-sale report by The Value on December 21, 2017, highlighted them as the most expensive Chinese classical furniture sold in that auction, underscoring their market significance amid growing demand for huanghuali pieces.
Evolution from Wanli-Style Huanghuali Cabinets
Huanghuali cabinets evolved significantly from the Wanli Period (1573–1620) of the late Ming Dynasty to the Kangxi Period of the Qing Dynasty, reflecting broader shifts in Chinese furniture design influenced by social, economic, and cultural changes.
During the Wanli Period, huanghuali cabinets exemplified the Ming Dynasty's minimalist aesthetic, emphasizing elegance, simplicity, and functionality suited to the literati (scholarly elite). A hallmark was the wanligui (Wanli cabinet), a rare square-corner display cabinet with multiple open shelves, first appearing in the mid- to late Ming. These were typically placed in scholars' studios for storing books, scrolls, antiques, writing tools, and fragile items, promoting visual symmetry when paired. Materials shifted from lacquer to hardwoods like huanghuali, prized for its vivid grain and durability, allowing for advanced joinery like mitre, mortise, and tenon without metal fasteners. Designs favored clean lines, gentle curves, and subtle proportions, aligning with Confucian ideals of harmony and restraint. Other forms included yaoxiang (apothecary cabinets) with drawers for medicines or accessories, and sijiangui (compound cabinets) for clothing storage, often massive to convey status. This era's prosperity from trade enabled such refined craftsmanship, as seen in texts like Gao Lian's Zunsheng Bajian (late 16th century), which linked furniture to spiritual well-being.
The transition to the Qing Dynasty, particularly the Kangxi Period, built on Ming foundations but introduced greater robustness and architectural influences, marking the first stage of Qing furniture development (1644–Kangxi reign). Huanghuali remained popular, but designs became more substantial and practical, retaining Ming simplicity while incorporating bolder forms and symbolic carvings (e.g., phoenixes for imperial auspiciousness). Cabinets like the 'Phoenix' pair evolved from Ming sijiangui into larger, more imposing structures with enhanced symmetry and durability, suitable for imperial or elite contexts. The early Qing period (up to Kangxi) preserved Ming characteristics, such as clean lines, due to lingering influences, but shifted toward sturdier builds under artisans like Dashan. By the mid-Qing (Yongzheng–Qianlong reigns), styles grew more ornate with inlays and elaborate decorations, diverging from Ming minimalism toward opulence, though huanghuali's scarcity led to increased use of zitan and other woods. This evolution mirrored Qing imperial expansion, with furniture symbolizing power and cultural synthesis, while Ming pieces focused on scholarly refinement.
May the execution period be tentatively restricted to a decade (to be defined) or to 'early Kangxi' ?
Based on extensive research into auction records, scholarly references on Chinese classical furniture (such as Sarah Handler's Austere Luminosity of Chinese Classical Furniture), and stylistic analyses of comparable huanghuali pieces, the execution period of this specific pair of 'Phoenix' cabinets can indeed be tentatively restricted to 'early Kangxi' (approximately the late 17th century, ca. 1662–1700).
Reasoning for 'Early Kangxi' Attribution
Detailed Description of the Pair of Huanghuali-Wood ‘Phoenix’ CabinetsThe Pair of Huanghuali-wood ‘Phoenix’ Cabinets from the Kangxi Period (1662–1722) of the Qing Dynasty represent a magnificent and rare example of Chinese classical furniture, renowned for their grandeur, craftsmanship, and symbolic motifs.
Crafted from huanghuali (Dalbergia odorifera), a highly prized hardwood known for its rich golden-brown hue, fine grain, and subtle fragrance, these cabinets feature intricate carvings of phoenixes, which symbolize virtue, grace, and prosperity in Chinese culture. The phoenix motifs are likely integrated into the panels or structural elements, adding to the cabinets' auspicious and imperial connotations, as the phoenix was often associated with the empress and harmony.
Each cabinet measures an imposing 314 cm in height, 156.6 cm in width, and 77.5 cm in depth, making them substantial pieces designed for prominent display in grand halls or scholarly quarters.
As a pair, they embody the Qing preference for symmetry in interior design, often placed side by side to create visual balance. The construction employs traditional joinery techniques, such as mortise-and-tenon, ensuring durability without the need for nails, while the wood's natural patterns are highlighted to enhance aesthetic appeal. These cabinets would have served practical purposes, such as storing garments, scrolls, or precious items, while also functioning as status symbols for elite households.
Historically, huanghuali furniture from the Kangxi Period reflects the era's blend of Ming influences with emerging Qing robustness, produced during a time of imperial stability and cultural flourishing under Emperor Kangxi. The provenance traces back to Long Shun Cheng Furniture in Beijing (1956–1983), then to the collection of renowned Chinese film director Li Han-hsiang (1983–1996), who was a noted collector of classical Chinese art. They were previously sold at China Guardian's auction of the Li Han-hsiang Collection on October 9, 1995 (lot 848).
At the Beijing Poly Auction's "Yu Gong II - The Grand Panorama" evening sale on December 18, 2017 (lot 5178), the cabinets were the top lot, starting at RMB 42 million and fetching a hammer price of RMB 86 million after intense bidding. Including the buyer's premium, they realized RMB 98.9 million (approximately US$15.5 million at the time), setting a then-record for Chinese classical furniture. The post-sale report by The Value on December 21, 2017, highlighted them as the most expensive Chinese classical furniture sold in that auction, underscoring their market significance amid growing demand for huanghuali pieces.
Evolution from Wanli-Style Huanghuali Cabinets
Huanghuali cabinets evolved significantly from the Wanli Period (1573–1620) of the late Ming Dynasty to the Kangxi Period of the Qing Dynasty, reflecting broader shifts in Chinese furniture design influenced by social, economic, and cultural changes.
During the Wanli Period, huanghuali cabinets exemplified the Ming Dynasty's minimalist aesthetic, emphasizing elegance, simplicity, and functionality suited to the literati (scholarly elite). A hallmark was the wanligui (Wanli cabinet), a rare square-corner display cabinet with multiple open shelves, first appearing in the mid- to late Ming. These were typically placed in scholars' studios for storing books, scrolls, antiques, writing tools, and fragile items, promoting visual symmetry when paired. Materials shifted from lacquer to hardwoods like huanghuali, prized for its vivid grain and durability, allowing for advanced joinery like mitre, mortise, and tenon without metal fasteners. Designs favored clean lines, gentle curves, and subtle proportions, aligning with Confucian ideals of harmony and restraint. Other forms included yaoxiang (apothecary cabinets) with drawers for medicines or accessories, and sijiangui (compound cabinets) for clothing storage, often massive to convey status. This era's prosperity from trade enabled such refined craftsmanship, as seen in texts like Gao Lian's Zunsheng Bajian (late 16th century), which linked furniture to spiritual well-being.
The transition to the Qing Dynasty, particularly the Kangxi Period, built on Ming foundations but introduced greater robustness and architectural influences, marking the first stage of Qing furniture development (1644–Kangxi reign). Huanghuali remained popular, but designs became more substantial and practical, retaining Ming simplicity while incorporating bolder forms and symbolic carvings (e.g., phoenixes for imperial auspiciousness). Cabinets like the 'Phoenix' pair evolved from Ming sijiangui into larger, more imposing structures with enhanced symmetry and durability, suitable for imperial or elite contexts. The early Qing period (up to Kangxi) preserved Ming characteristics, such as clean lines, due to lingering influences, but shifted toward sturdier builds under artisans like Dashan. By the mid-Qing (Yongzheng–Qianlong reigns), styles grew more ornate with inlays and elaborate decorations, diverging from Ming minimalism toward opulence, though huanghuali's scarcity led to increased use of zitan and other woods. This evolution mirrored Qing imperial expansion, with furniture symbolizing power and cultural synthesis, while Ming pieces focused on scholarly refinement.
May the execution period be tentatively restricted to a decade (to be defined) or to 'early Kangxi' ?
Based on extensive research into auction records, scholarly references on Chinese classical furniture (such as Sarah Handler's Austere Luminosity of Chinese Classical Furniture), and stylistic analyses of comparable huanghuali pieces, the execution period of this specific pair of 'Phoenix' cabinets can indeed be tentatively restricted to 'early Kangxi' (approximately the late 17th century, ca. 1662–1700).
Reasoning for 'Early Kangxi' Attribution
- Auction and Provenance Descriptions: The Beijing Poly 2017 catalog and related reports (including the 1995 China Guardian sale of the Li Han-hsiang Collection) attribute the cabinets broadly to the "Kangxi Period" (1662–1722) without a narrower sub-period. However, the style—featuring robust yet transitional Ming influences, intricate phoenix carvings (symbolizing imperial auspiciousness and harmony), and the use of huanghuali hardwood—aligns with early Qing developments under Kangxi, when Ming aesthetics were still prominent before shifting to more ornate mid-Qing (Yongzheng–Qianlong) designs.
- Stylistic Evolution and Material Use: Huanghuali furniture reached its peak in the late Ming (ca. 1550–1644) and early Qing (ca. 1644–1735), with pieces like display cabinets (e.g., lianggegui or wanligui) often dated to the late 17th/early 18th century. The phoenix motif, common in Qing carvings for marital bliss and prosperity, appears on related furniture (e.g., couchbeds, side tables) from this transitional era, evolving from Ming's austere simplicity (clean lines, minimal decoration) to Qing's bolder relief work. By the mid-Kangxi period and later, huanghuali became scarcer, giving way to zitan and more elaborate inlays, suggesting these cabinets predate that shift.
- Comparable Examples: Similar huanghuali cabinets and related pieces are consistently dated to the 17th century (late Ming/early Qing), which overlaps with early Kangxi:
- Square-corner display cabinets (wanligui): Qing, late 17th/early 18th century, with carved motifs like dragons, clouds, and lotus.
- Tapered cabinets (yuanjiaogui): Late 16th/early 17th century.
- Table cabinets with carvings: Late Ming–early Qing (17th century).
- Phoenix-motif pieces (e.g., side tables with back-to-back phoenixes amid clouds): Ming/Qing, 17th century.
- While 'early Kangxi' is supported, restricting to a single decade (e.g., 1670–1680 or 1690–1700) is not feasible without further expert analysis (e.g., dendrochronology or unpublished provenance details). Chinese furniture dating relies on style, wood grain, joinery (e.g., mortise-and-tenon), and historical context rather than precise years, and no sources for this pair provide such granularity. Broader attributions like "17th century" or "late 17th/early 18th century" are standard for huanghuali works.
Album by BADA SHANREN
1
1684
2016 SOLD for HK$ 77M by China Guardian
Zhu Da was a distant descendant of the Hongwu Emperor of the Ming. The seizure of power by the Qing is a disaster for his family. To protect himself, he becomes a monk and exhibits his frenzied madness, not necessarily simulated.
Time is passing. Zhu can finally leave the monastic habit and devote himself to painting and calligraphy. In 1684 CE, at the age of 59, he takes as his artist name Bada Shanren, which translates as 'the man of the eight great mountains'. It doesn't mean anything, but these characters evoke with a stylized writing the words 'laugh' and 'cry'.
The art of this irreducible rebel is unprecedented in its themes and style. He draws nature in small insignificant details. His brush stroke systematically includes contrasts of ink and sometimes even blur. His remarkable freedom of execution will influence the modern Chinese art.
Bada Shanren often assembles his works in albums in which at least one image is dated. An album of ten leaves 24 x 38 cm made in 1684 was sold for HK $ 77M by China Guardian on May 13, 2016, lot 500.
Nine of them are equally separated for calligraphy and image, the tenth is a whole calligraphy. The similarity of composition for different subjects, for example the bird and the fish, shows the importance given by the artist to elementary forms in that phase of his restarting.
Time is passing. Zhu can finally leave the monastic habit and devote himself to painting and calligraphy. In 1684 CE, at the age of 59, he takes as his artist name Bada Shanren, which translates as 'the man of the eight great mountains'. It doesn't mean anything, but these characters evoke with a stylized writing the words 'laugh' and 'cry'.
The art of this irreducible rebel is unprecedented in its themes and style. He draws nature in small insignificant details. His brush stroke systematically includes contrasts of ink and sometimes even blur. His remarkable freedom of execution will influence the modern Chinese art.
Bada Shanren often assembles his works in albums in which at least one image is dated. An album of ten leaves 24 x 38 cm made in 1684 was sold for HK $ 77M by China Guardian on May 13, 2016, lot 500.
Nine of them are equally separated for calligraphy and image, the tenth is a whole calligraphy. The similarity of composition for different subjects, for example the bird and the fish, shows the importance given by the artist to elementary forms in that phase of his restarting.
2
1698
2020 SOLD for RMB 71M by China Guardian
From 1681 to 1684, Zhu Da aka Bada Shanren expanded his repertoire of subjects to include animals like birds and fish in addition to flowers and vegetables. His earliest surviving landscape paintings are dated to this period. Starting in 1693, landscapes became a major subject of his work.
An album of seventeen leaves 30 x 22 cm made in 1698 bringing together flowers, birds and landscapes was sold for HK $ 34M by Christie's on December 2, 2008, lot 1938, and for RMB 71M by China Guardian on December 1, 2020, lot 290 illustrated in third position in the post sale press release.
An album of twelve leaves 29 x 20 cm made in 1703 bringing together flowers, birds, fish and fruit was sold for $ 3.13M by Sotheby's on March 16, 2017, lot 844.
An album of seventeen leaves 30 x 22 cm made in 1698 bringing together flowers, birds and landscapes was sold for HK $ 34M by Christie's on December 2, 2008, lot 1938, and for RMB 71M by China Guardian on December 1, 2020, lot 290 illustrated in third position in the post sale press release.
An album of twelve leaves 29 x 20 cm made in 1703 bringing together flowers, birds, fish and fruit was sold for $ 3.13M by Sotheby's on March 16, 2017, lot 844.
1687 Principia by Newton
2016 SOLD for $ 3.7M by Christie's
Isaac Newton was the most brilliant scientific innovator of all time. Late in his life he laid down the rules that had guided his unprecedented method. One of these rules summarizes in a simple sentence how he created the modern physics : to the same natural effects we must, as far as possible, assign the same causes.
One of his outstanding skills was to develop mathematical methods of high complexity to analyze and support his own physical theories. Even before he was 30, he compared the motion of the planets and the fall of the bodies. Essentially preoccupied with his own understanding of the mechanism of the universe, he published reluctantly.
In 1684 in London, the scientists of the Royal Society challenged themselves to find the mathematical formulation of the law of motion of the planets described by Kepler. All failed. Halley visits Newton in Cambridge. He is stunned : Newton knows the solution but has lost his calculation notes. The orbital movement of a celestial body is an ellipse whose position of the other body is one of the foci.
The scientific stake is highly important and Halley manages to persuade Newton to disclose in their entirety his results concerning the law of universal gravitation. Edited and financed by Halley, Newton's Latin book entitled Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica is published in 1687 with the imprimatur of the Royal Society.
The book is difficult in the opinion of the author himself and the circulation probably did not exceed 300 copies but it is of such scientific importance that Halley and Newton took care of organizing their sale through booksellers. One of them named Samuel Smith is more specifically entrusted to the supply onto the Continent and receives about 50 copies for that purpose.
On December 14, 2016, Christie's sold one of the Smith 'Continental' presentation copies of the Principia for $ 3.7M from a lower estimate of $ 1M, lot 167. It is bound in its original unrestored morocco with gold and red inlays. The recipient is not identified.
A Royal copy of the Principia in its original morocco luxury binding was sold for $ 2.5M by Christie's on December 6, 2013, lot 170. It had been presented by Halley to King James II, patron of the Royal Society. The Royal bindings from that reign are extremely rare.
One of his outstanding skills was to develop mathematical methods of high complexity to analyze and support his own physical theories. Even before he was 30, he compared the motion of the planets and the fall of the bodies. Essentially preoccupied with his own understanding of the mechanism of the universe, he published reluctantly.
In 1684 in London, the scientists of the Royal Society challenged themselves to find the mathematical formulation of the law of motion of the planets described by Kepler. All failed. Halley visits Newton in Cambridge. He is stunned : Newton knows the solution but has lost his calculation notes. The orbital movement of a celestial body is an ellipse whose position of the other body is one of the foci.
The scientific stake is highly important and Halley manages to persuade Newton to disclose in their entirety his results concerning the law of universal gravitation. Edited and financed by Halley, Newton's Latin book entitled Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica is published in 1687 with the imprimatur of the Royal Society.
The book is difficult in the opinion of the author himself and the circulation probably did not exceed 300 copies but it is of such scientific importance that Halley and Newton took care of organizing their sale through booksellers. One of them named Samuel Smith is more specifically entrusted to the supply onto the Continent and receives about 50 copies for that purpose.
On December 14, 2016, Christie's sold one of the Smith 'Continental' presentation copies of the Principia for $ 3.7M from a lower estimate of $ 1M, lot 167. It is bound in its original unrestored morocco with gold and red inlays. The recipient is not identified.
A Royal copy of the Principia in its original morocco luxury binding was sold for $ 2.5M by Christie's on December 6, 2013, lot 170. It had been presented by Halley to King James II, patron of the Royal Society. The Royal bindings from that reign are extremely rare.
Isaac Newton : Influence on the advancement of Physics, Astronomy and overall on Science and Knowledge. Psychological evaluation.
Isaac Newton's Influence on the Advancement of Physics, Astronomy, and Overall Science and Knowledge
Isaac Newton (1643–1727) stands as one of the most pivotal figures in the history of science, fundamentally reshaping our understanding of the physical world through his groundbreaking work in mathematics, physics, optics, and astronomy. His contributions during the Scientific Revolution laid the foundations for classical mechanics and modern scientific inquiry, influencing fields far beyond his era and enabling advancements in technology, engineering, and cosmology that persist today.
Contributions to Physics
Newton's most renowned work, Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (commonly known as the Principia), published in 1687, introduced his three laws of motion, which became the bedrock of classical physics. These laws are:
In optics, Newton's 1704 book Opticks demonstrated that white light is composed of a spectrum of colors through prism experiments, laying the groundwork for spectral analysis and modern understanding of light as a wave-particle phenomenon. He also invented the reflecting telescope in 1668, which minimized chromatic aberration and advanced observational tools in physics and astronomy.
Contributions to Astronomy
Newton's gravitational theory derived Kepler's laws of planetary motion from first principles, confirming heliocentrism and explaining the precession of equinoxes, lunar orbits, and satellite dynamics. By applying his laws to Jupiter's moons and Earth's Moon, he showed that the same force governing apples falling on Earth holds planets in orbit around the Sun. This unification eradicated doubts about the Solar System's structure and enabled predictions of celestial events, such as Halley's Comet's return. His reflecting telescope design improved astronomical observations, contributing to later discoveries in stellar dynamics and galactic behavior.
Newton's work extended to calculating the speed of sound and the density of air, influencing astrophysics and planetary science. His model of the universe was more elegant and consistent than predecessors, fostering a mechanistic worldview that propelled astronomy forward.
Broader Impact on Science and Knowledge
Newton co-invented infinitesimal calculus (independently of Leibniz), providing tools for solving problems in rates of change, integrals, and differential equations—essential for physics, engineering, and economics. His emphasis on empirical evidence and mathematical rigor refined the scientific method, shifting science from philosophical speculation to quantitative experimentation. This approach catalyzed the Enlightenment, inspiring figures like Voltaire and Kant, and established Newton as the exemplar of modern science.
Overall, Newton's ideas revolutionized knowledge by demonstrating that natural phenomena could be explained through universal laws, influencing everything from space exploration to quantum mechanics. His legacy is often summarized as having contributed more to science than any other individual, ushering in an era where observation and mathematics became the pillars of human understanding.
Psychological Evaluation of Isaac Newton
Posthumous psychological assessments of Newton are inherently speculative, based on historical accounts, letters, and biographical analyses rather than clinical diagnoses. However, evidence from contemporaries and modern analyses points to a complex personality marked by insecurity, introversion, and episodes of mental distress, possibly exacerbated by environmental factors like mercury exposure from his alchemical experiments. Sources vary in their interpretations, with some attributing symptoms to bipolar disorder, depression, or schizophrenia, while others emphasize mercury poisoning or neurotic traits stemming from childhood trauma.
Newton was described as deeply introverted, secretive, and protective of his privacy, often avoiding social interactions and forming few close relationships. He exhibited low self-esteem, egotism, dominance, and paranoia, fearing theft of his ideas or criticism from rivals like Robert Hooke or Leibniz. As a child, he was solitary, preferring inventions over play, and his mother's remarriage and separation from him at age three likely contributed to lifelong insecurity and trust issues.
A major episode occurred in 1692–1693, often called a "nervous breakdown" or "madness," lasting about 18 months. Symptoms included severe insomnia, poor digestion, loss of appetite, memory problems, delusions of persecution (e.g., believing friends like John Locke and Samuel Pepys were conspiring against him), paranoia, and irrational accusations. He experienced violent temper outbursts, apathy, and withdrawal from friendships, including a strained relationship with Nicolas Fatio de Duillier. Explanations differ:
Isaac Newton's Influence on the Advancement of Physics, Astronomy, and Overall Science and Knowledge
Isaac Newton (1643–1727) stands as one of the most pivotal figures in the history of science, fundamentally reshaping our understanding of the physical world through his groundbreaking work in mathematics, physics, optics, and astronomy. His contributions during the Scientific Revolution laid the foundations for classical mechanics and modern scientific inquiry, influencing fields far beyond his era and enabling advancements in technology, engineering, and cosmology that persist today.
Contributions to Physics
Newton's most renowned work, Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (commonly known as the Principia), published in 1687, introduced his three laws of motion, which became the bedrock of classical physics. These laws are:
- Law of Inertia: A body remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by an external force.
- Law of Acceleration: The change in motion is proportional to the force applied (F = ma).
- Law of Action-Reaction: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
In optics, Newton's 1704 book Opticks demonstrated that white light is composed of a spectrum of colors through prism experiments, laying the groundwork for spectral analysis and modern understanding of light as a wave-particle phenomenon. He also invented the reflecting telescope in 1668, which minimized chromatic aberration and advanced observational tools in physics and astronomy.
Contributions to Astronomy
Newton's gravitational theory derived Kepler's laws of planetary motion from first principles, confirming heliocentrism and explaining the precession of equinoxes, lunar orbits, and satellite dynamics. By applying his laws to Jupiter's moons and Earth's Moon, he showed that the same force governing apples falling on Earth holds planets in orbit around the Sun. This unification eradicated doubts about the Solar System's structure and enabled predictions of celestial events, such as Halley's Comet's return. His reflecting telescope design improved astronomical observations, contributing to later discoveries in stellar dynamics and galactic behavior.
Newton's work extended to calculating the speed of sound and the density of air, influencing astrophysics and planetary science. His model of the universe was more elegant and consistent than predecessors, fostering a mechanistic worldview that propelled astronomy forward.
Broader Impact on Science and Knowledge
Newton co-invented infinitesimal calculus (independently of Leibniz), providing tools for solving problems in rates of change, integrals, and differential equations—essential for physics, engineering, and economics. His emphasis on empirical evidence and mathematical rigor refined the scientific method, shifting science from philosophical speculation to quantitative experimentation. This approach catalyzed the Enlightenment, inspiring figures like Voltaire and Kant, and established Newton as the exemplar of modern science.
Overall, Newton's ideas revolutionized knowledge by demonstrating that natural phenomena could be explained through universal laws, influencing everything from space exploration to quantum mechanics. His legacy is often summarized as having contributed more to science than any other individual, ushering in an era where observation and mathematics became the pillars of human understanding.
Psychological Evaluation of Isaac Newton
Posthumous psychological assessments of Newton are inherently speculative, based on historical accounts, letters, and biographical analyses rather than clinical diagnoses. However, evidence from contemporaries and modern analyses points to a complex personality marked by insecurity, introversion, and episodes of mental distress, possibly exacerbated by environmental factors like mercury exposure from his alchemical experiments. Sources vary in their interpretations, with some attributing symptoms to bipolar disorder, depression, or schizophrenia, while others emphasize mercury poisoning or neurotic traits stemming from childhood trauma.
Newton was described as deeply introverted, secretive, and protective of his privacy, often avoiding social interactions and forming few close relationships. He exhibited low self-esteem, egotism, dominance, and paranoia, fearing theft of his ideas or criticism from rivals like Robert Hooke or Leibniz. As a child, he was solitary, preferring inventions over play, and his mother's remarriage and separation from him at age three likely contributed to lifelong insecurity and trust issues.
A major episode occurred in 1692–1693, often called a "nervous breakdown" or "madness," lasting about 18 months. Symptoms included severe insomnia, poor digestion, loss of appetite, memory problems, delusions of persecution (e.g., believing friends like John Locke and Samuel Pepys were conspiring against him), paranoia, and irrational accusations. He experienced violent temper outbursts, apathy, and withdrawal from friendships, including a strained relationship with Nicolas Fatio de Duillier. Explanations differ:
- Mercury Poisoning: Hair analysis from the 1970s showed elevated mercury (up to 40 times normal) and lead levels, consistent with his alchemical pursuits involving toxic substances. Symptoms like tremor, confusion, paranoia, and memory loss align with chronic mercury poisoning (mercurialism), which some argue caused or worsened his 1693 episode rather than inherent mental illness.
- Bipolar Disorder: Newton showed manic phases (intense, sleepless productivity leading to major discoveries in his 20s) alternating with depressive lows, including suicidal thoughts, anxiety, and sadness documented in his notebooks. His high-strung nature and brooding suggest neuroticism, where overthinking fueled both creativity and unhappiness.
- Other Possibilities: Some propose schizophrenia (hallucinations, delusions, paranoia) or autism (social difficulties, obsessive focus), but these are less supported; one analysis rejects Asperger's syndrome in favor of childhood-induced vulnerability. Depression or melancholia is frequently cited, with grandiose elements in his self-perception (e.g., feeling chosen by God).
Newton's deluxe "Principia" far surpasses $1 million @ChristiesBKS today, reaching $3.7 million! https://t.co/V3Bwq6aGsu pic.twitter.com/4xardPPXsM
— Fine Books Magazine (@finebooks) December 14, 2016
1688 The Fragrance of a Nation by Yun Shouping
2021 SOLD for HK$ 60M by Christie's
A landscape painter competing with the four Wangs of the early Qing, Yun Shouping managed to be instead acknowledged as the best painter of flowers.
Yun admired the application to flowers of the mogu technique by Xu Xi seven centuries earlier during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. The mogu, that may be translated as boneless, is using color wash instead of outline for executing a figuration.
The Fragrance of a nation in Clearing spring is an ink and color on silk 135 x 68 cm dated from a wuchen year that matches 1688 CE. This re-interpretation of Xu is a masterpiece of the later career of Yun, aged 55, two years before his death.
The emanating fragrance of the title is suggested by five flowers in a gradual maturity from the bud to a large lavender bloom.
This hanging scroll was sold for HK $ 60M from a lower estimate of HK $ 3M by Christie's on November 29, 2021, lot 867. Its silk is in an almost pristine condition.
Yun admired the application to flowers of the mogu technique by Xu Xi seven centuries earlier during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. The mogu, that may be translated as boneless, is using color wash instead of outline for executing a figuration.
The Fragrance of a nation in Clearing spring is an ink and color on silk 135 x 68 cm dated from a wuchen year that matches 1688 CE. This re-interpretation of Xu is a masterpiece of the later career of Yun, aged 55, two years before his death.
The emanating fragrance of the title is suggested by five flowers in a gradual maturity from the bud to a large lavender bloom.
This hanging scroll was sold for HK $ 60M from a lower estimate of HK $ 3M by Christie's on November 29, 2021, lot 867. Its silk is in an almost pristine condition.
1690 Kangxi Soapstone Seal
2016 SOLD for HK$ 49M by Sotheby's
The Kangxi Emperor, who was a hard worker, was devoting his leisure time to knowledge, philosophy and calligraphy. He used for that purpose two studio rooms, the Yangxingdian in the Forbidden City and the Yuanjianzhai in a pavilion of an imperial garden.
Kangxi had about 130 seals for identifying his consultation of documents or expressing his opinion. The soapstone, easy to carve and in nice shade, was used extensively during his reign thanks to a new abundance of this mineral. His successors will prefer the jade.
A Kangxi seal in soapstone was sold for HK $ 49M by Sotheby's on April 6, 2016, lot 3102.
The mark 5.9 x 5.9 cm is clear, symbolic and effective. The central inscription indicates Yuanjianzhai as the location of its use. This inscription is flanked left and right with the undulating silhouettes of the tiger and the dragon and terminated at both ends by the symbols of heaven and earth, yin and yang, between which the emperor himself is the only intercessor.
This seal may have been shown in 1690 to the missionary Jean-François Gerbillon. Invited in the Yangxingdian to inspect the imperial seals, he observed that a possibility of textual and graphical duality was practiced in very few marks.
The Yuanjianzhai seal is topped in a lighter hue of the soapstone with a mythical beast that is altogether powerful and caring, for an overall height of 6.9 cm from that piece.
Kangxi had about 130 seals for identifying his consultation of documents or expressing his opinion. The soapstone, easy to carve and in nice shade, was used extensively during his reign thanks to a new abundance of this mineral. His successors will prefer the jade.
A Kangxi seal in soapstone was sold for HK $ 49M by Sotheby's on April 6, 2016, lot 3102.
The mark 5.9 x 5.9 cm is clear, symbolic and effective. The central inscription indicates Yuanjianzhai as the location of its use. This inscription is flanked left and right with the undulating silhouettes of the tiger and the dragon and terminated at both ends by the symbols of heaven and earth, yin and yang, between which the emperor himself is the only intercessor.
This seal may have been shown in 1690 to the missionary Jean-François Gerbillon. Invited in the Yangxingdian to inspect the imperial seals, he observed that a possibility of textual and graphical duality was practiced in very few marks.
The Yuanjianzhai seal is topped in a lighter hue of the soapstone with a mythical beast that is altogether powerful and caring, for an overall height of 6.9 cm from that piece.
1691-97 Kangxi Southern Tour by Wang Hui
The Manchu Qing Dynasty had first seized Northern China. By organizing and pacifying Southern China, the Kangxi Emperor became the great re-unifier of this vast country.
The Kangxi Emperor had a high opinion of his duties and responsibilities and his personal commitment was intense. The Qing Dynasty was still recent and it was challenged in the border provinces. The six inspection tours conducted by the emperor in the south between the 24th and the 47th year of his reign are intended for the assimilation of these reluctant regions.
Kangxi is not afraid to go to war but prefers peace. His tours are opportunities to link with the Four Occupations in their local particularities : gentry, peasants, craftsmen and merchants. The loyalty to the Emperor requires to understand and to be understood. Kangxi is a great statesman, lucid, responsible and effective.
The second trip took place during the 29th year of the reign, 1689 CE. It was fruitful and promising and they must preserve its memory. An imperial decree orders the execution of a scroll divided into twelve parts showing in a continuity the steps of the long journey.
Two years later, in order to mark the prestige of this operation, Kangxi required the imperial palace workshops to display this journey through a series of handscrolls. The management of the project is entrusted to the best landscape painter of that time, Wang Hui.
I do not know where Wang was during the 1689 Imperial inspection. It does not matter. A connoisseur of the Song and Yuan landscape art, he worked by copy and imagination, including in his work picturesque scenes with numerous figures caught in everyday life.
The landscape is depicted with realism all along the way in a graphic style inspired from the Yuan maps, enough detailed to be used for guiding a trip along thousands of kilometers.
For seven years from the 31st year of Kangxi, the team of artists applies strictly on a silk strip 68 cm high the detailed instructions of Master Wang concerning the topographic features, the more or less close distance to villages and mountains, the actions of the emperor and the daily life of the people. The style is magnificent.
The overall length of the twelve scrolls, completed around the 37th year of the reign, is 200 meters. Nine scrolls are complete and kept in various museums. The scroll number 6 was plundered by the French during the Boxer War and divided in or near Bordeaux, possibly in a deceased estate in the 1930s. The whereabouts of the scrolls 5 and 8 are not known.
The Kangxi Emperor had a high opinion of his duties and responsibilities and his personal commitment was intense. The Qing Dynasty was still recent and it was challenged in the border provinces. The six inspection tours conducted by the emperor in the south between the 24th and the 47th year of his reign are intended for the assimilation of these reluctant regions.
Kangxi is not afraid to go to war but prefers peace. His tours are opportunities to link with the Four Occupations in their local particularities : gentry, peasants, craftsmen and merchants. The loyalty to the Emperor requires to understand and to be understood. Kangxi is a great statesman, lucid, responsible and effective.
The second trip took place during the 29th year of the reign, 1689 CE. It was fruitful and promising and they must preserve its memory. An imperial decree orders the execution of a scroll divided into twelve parts showing in a continuity the steps of the long journey.
Two years later, in order to mark the prestige of this operation, Kangxi required the imperial palace workshops to display this journey through a series of handscrolls. The management of the project is entrusted to the best landscape painter of that time, Wang Hui.
I do not know where Wang was during the 1689 Imperial inspection. It does not matter. A connoisseur of the Song and Yuan landscape art, he worked by copy and imagination, including in his work picturesque scenes with numerous figures caught in everyday life.
The landscape is depicted with realism all along the way in a graphic style inspired from the Yuan maps, enough detailed to be used for guiding a trip along thousands of kilometers.
For seven years from the 31st year of Kangxi, the team of artists applies strictly on a silk strip 68 cm high the detailed instructions of Master Wang concerning the topographic features, the more or less close distance to villages and mountains, the actions of the emperor and the daily life of the people. The style is magnificent.
The overall length of the twelve scrolls, completed around the 37th year of the reign, is 200 meters. Nine scrolls are complete and kept in various museums. The scroll number 6 was plundered by the French during the Boxer War and divided in or near Bordeaux, possibly in a deceased estate in the 1930s. The whereabouts of the scrolls 5 and 8 are not known.
Qing imperial handscrolls : Compare Qianlong military parade ( 1 : lost ; 2 : Beijing Palace Museum ; 3 : sold by Sotheby's on October 8, 2008 ; 4 : sold by Marc Labarbe on March 26, 2011) to Kangxi Southern Tour (fragments sold by Sotheby's on April 7, 2010, lot 1824, by Sotheby's on September 14, 2016, lot 576, and by Briscadieu on April 27, 2013 and on March 8, 2014).
Overview of the Handscrolls
The Qianlong military parade handscrolls and the Kangxi Southern Tour handscrolls are both monumental Qing dynasty imperial commissions, created to document and glorify significant events during the reigns of these emperors. The Qianlong set commemorates a grand military review, emphasizing martial prowess and imperial authority, while the Kangxi set illustrates a civil inspection tour, highlighting governance, prosperity, and the emperor's benevolence. Both series are executed in ink and color, with meticulous detail in vast panoramic compositions viewed from right to left. However, they differ in artistic style, medium, historical context, and current status. The specific items mentioned in the query refer to the four Qianlong scrolls (a complete set with one lost) and fragments from Scroll 6 of the Kangxi series (which was divided but later reunited).
Kangxi Southern Tour Handscrolls (Focus on Scroll 6 Fragments)
The full series, The Kangxi Emperor's Southern Inspection Tour (or Nanxun Tu), consists of 12 handscrolls painted from 1691 to 1697 by Wang Hui and his assistants, documenting the emperor's 1689 journey through southern China to inspect infrastructure like rivers and dikes. This set adheres to traditional Chinese orthodox landscape painting, with bird's-eye views, intricate urban and rural scenes, and symbolic depictions of harmony between ruler and subjects. Scrolls are approximately 67.8 cm high and 14–26 meters long, on paper. Several scrolls are in museums (e.g., Metropolitan Museum of Art), but Scrolls 5 and 8 are lost entirely.
Scroll 6, depicting the route from Guazhou across the Yangtze River to Mount Jinshan and Changzhou Prefecture, was cut into at least seven fragments by a French collector in the early 20th century. It features bustling river scenes, temples, and the imperial entourage amid vibrant city life. All fragments have since been reunited by private collectors over a decade of acquisitions.
The mentioned fragments and sales:
1689 southern inspection tour segment from Guazhou to Changzhou, focusing on river crossings, temples, and urban prosperity.
Purpose & Theme
Highlight civil administration, benevolence, and harmony with the people; symbolic of Manchu legitimacy in Han regions.
Artists & Style
Wang Hui and assistants; traditional Chinese landscape style with detailed, idealized topography.
Medium & Size
scroll 6 : Ink and color on paper; ~67.8 cm high, original scroll ~20+ m long (fragments vary, e.g., 4.75 m for one).
Condition & Status
scroll 6 : Fragmented into 7+ pieces in early 20th century, but all reunited by private collectors by ~2020.
Auction Highlights
Fragments sold piecemeal: 2010 lot ; 2016 lot US$9.5M ; 2013/2014 Briscadieu.
Significance
Iconic for Qing propaganda of unity; Scroll 6's fragmentation highlights 20th-century dispersal of Chinese art.
These works represent the pinnacle of Qing court painting, with the Qianlong scrolls leaning toward dramatic, militaristic spectacle and the Kangxi fragments offering a more serene, narrative travelogue. Their market appearances underscore the enduring value of imperial artifacts, often fetching multimillion-dollar prices due to rarity and provenance.
Wang Hui: Overview and Artistic Legacy
Wang Hui (1632–1717), one of the "Four Wangs" of the Qing dynasty, was a master landscape painter who revitalized orthodox traditions by synthesizing styles from ancient masters like Huang Gongwang and Li Cheng. Trained under Wang Shimin and Wang Jian, he emphasized meticulous brushwork, rhythmic textures, and harmonious compositions in ink and color. While best known for supervising the Kangxi Emperor's Southern Inspection Tour scrolls, his independent works showcase personal innovation, often in handscroll or hanging scroll formats, depicting idealized nature with depth and vitality. Below are some of his other prominent masterpieces, selected for their historical significance, artistic merit, and representation in major collections. These highlight his versatility in emulating past styles while infusing Qing-era grandeur.
Overview of the Handscrolls
The Qianlong military parade handscrolls and the Kangxi Southern Tour handscrolls are both monumental Qing dynasty imperial commissions, created to document and glorify significant events during the reigns of these emperors. The Qianlong set commemorates a grand military review, emphasizing martial prowess and imperial authority, while the Kangxi set illustrates a civil inspection tour, highlighting governance, prosperity, and the emperor's benevolence. Both series are executed in ink and color, with meticulous detail in vast panoramic compositions viewed from right to left. However, they differ in artistic style, medium, historical context, and current status. The specific items mentioned in the query refer to the four Qianlong scrolls (a complete set with one lost) and fragments from Scroll 6 of the Kangxi series (which was divided but later reunited).
Kangxi Southern Tour Handscrolls (Focus on Scroll 6 Fragments)
The full series, The Kangxi Emperor's Southern Inspection Tour (or Nanxun Tu), consists of 12 handscrolls painted from 1691 to 1697 by Wang Hui and his assistants, documenting the emperor's 1689 journey through southern China to inspect infrastructure like rivers and dikes. This set adheres to traditional Chinese orthodox landscape painting, with bird's-eye views, intricate urban and rural scenes, and symbolic depictions of harmony between ruler and subjects. Scrolls are approximately 67.8 cm high and 14–26 meters long, on paper. Several scrolls are in museums (e.g., Metropolitan Museum of Art), but Scrolls 5 and 8 are lost entirely.
Scroll 6, depicting the route from Guazhou across the Yangtze River to Mount Jinshan and Changzhou Prefecture, was cut into at least seven fragments by a French collector in the early 20th century. It features bustling river scenes, temples, and the imperial entourage amid vibrant city life. All fragments have since been reunited by private collectors over a decade of acquisitions.
The mentioned fragments and sales:
- Sotheby's Hong Kong, April 8, 2010, Lot 1824: A fragment showing the visit to Jiangtian Si temple on Mount Jinshan, with the emperor under a canopy amid ships and officials; (part of the reunification process).
- Sotheby's New York, September 14, 2016, Lot 576: The longest fragment (68 cm x 4.75 m), sold for US$9.5 million from a lower estimate of US$4 million.
- Briscadieu Bordeaux, April 27, 2013, and March 8, 2014: Additional fragments auctioned (confirmed as part of the dispersed pieces later collected).
1689 southern inspection tour segment from Guazhou to Changzhou, focusing on river crossings, temples, and urban prosperity.
Purpose & Theme
Highlight civil administration, benevolence, and harmony with the people; symbolic of Manchu legitimacy in Han regions.
Artists & Style
Wang Hui and assistants; traditional Chinese landscape style with detailed, idealized topography.
Medium & Size
scroll 6 : Ink and color on paper; ~67.8 cm high, original scroll ~20+ m long (fragments vary, e.g., 4.75 m for one).
Condition & Status
scroll 6 : Fragmented into 7+ pieces in early 20th century, but all reunited by private collectors by ~2020.
Auction Highlights
Fragments sold piecemeal: 2010 lot ; 2016 lot US$9.5M ; 2013/2014 Briscadieu.
Significance
Iconic for Qing propaganda of unity; Scroll 6's fragmentation highlights 20th-century dispersal of Chinese art.
These works represent the pinnacle of Qing court painting, with the Qianlong scrolls leaning toward dramatic, militaristic spectacle and the Kangxi fragments offering a more serene, narrative travelogue. Their market appearances underscore the enduring value of imperial artifacts, often fetching multimillion-dollar prices due to rarity and provenance.
Wang Hui: Overview and Artistic Legacy
Wang Hui (1632–1717), one of the "Four Wangs" of the Qing dynasty, was a master landscape painter who revitalized orthodox traditions by synthesizing styles from ancient masters like Huang Gongwang and Li Cheng. Trained under Wang Shimin and Wang Jian, he emphasized meticulous brushwork, rhythmic textures, and harmonious compositions in ink and color. While best known for supervising the Kangxi Emperor's Southern Inspection Tour scrolls, his independent works showcase personal innovation, often in handscroll or hanging scroll formats, depicting idealized nature with depth and vitality. Below are some of his other prominent masterpieces, selected for their historical significance, artistic merit, and representation in major collections. These highlight his versatility in emulating past styles while infusing Qing-era grandeur.
1
2016 SOLD for $ 9.5M by Sotheby"s
The longest fragment of the sixth scroll, 68 cm x 4.75 m, was sold for $ 9.5M from a lower estimate of $ 4M by Sotheby's on September 14, 2016, lot 576.
In a bird's-eye view demonstrating a remarkable control of the topographic representation, boats travel around the many islands of a river. It depicts dense poulations in their daily life and may be the terminal end of the still incomplete sixth scroll.
The tweet below shows a detail. Please watch the video shared by the auction house.
In a bird's-eye view demonstrating a remarkable control of the topographic representation, boats travel around the many islands of a river. It depicts dense poulations in their daily life and may be the terminal end of the still incomplete sixth scroll.
The tweet below shows a detail. Please watch the video shared by the auction house.
Single-owner collection of Chinese paintings @Sothebys after 25 years off the market. https://t.co/eMYfycoQK2 pic.twitter.com/aWOpS6WtaM
— AntiquesTradeGazette (@ATG_Editorial) August 5, 2016
2
2010 SOLD for HK 36.5M by Sotheby's
A fragment 68 cm x 3.62 m of the sixth scroll surfaced in Hong Kong in 2009 and was sold for HK $ 36.5M from a lower estimate of HK $ 2.5M by Sotheby's on April 7, 2010, lot 1824.
It is depicting the visit of the Kangxi emperor to the towering Jiangtian Si temple on Mount Jinshan in the middle of the Yangtze River. It features on the far left the emperor himself, standing on a terrace under a yellow canopy and escorted by many officials dotting the island,
A fragment 68 cm x 2.48 m including dock scenes was sold for € 3.36M by Briscadieu on April 27, 2013. Two other fragments of the same scroll, 2.58 m and 3.28 m, were listed separately on March 8, 2014 by the same auction house. One of them was sold for € 1.17M. The other fragment was sold for € 600K before fees.
It is depicting the visit of the Kangxi emperor to the towering Jiangtian Si temple on Mount Jinshan in the middle of the Yangtze River. It features on the far left the emperor himself, standing on a terrace under a yellow canopy and escorted by many officials dotting the island,
A fragment 68 cm x 2.48 m including dock scenes was sold for € 3.36M by Briscadieu on April 27, 2013. Two other fragments of the same scroll, 2.58 m and 3.28 m, were listed separately on March 8, 2014 by the same auction house. One of them was sold for € 1.17M. The other fragment was sold for € 600K before fees.
1695 Still Life by Coorte
2014 SOLD for £ 3.45M by Sotheby's
Adriaen Coorte has no biography. Fortunately he signed or monogramed his artworks, and some of them were dated from 1683 to 1705. 64 paintings are identified, and no drawing. Unknown to his contemporaries, he is referred only once, in 1695-1696, in Middelburg when the local league of St Luke fines him for an unauthorized sale.
The still lifes by Coorte have neither predecessor nor successor. Most of them show an arrangement of fruit or asparagus on the corner of a stone ledge. From the mid 1690s, his very unusual practice of oil on paper glued on canvas or panel reinforces the assumption that the author is not a professional artist.
The butterfly appears in the same period. In flight, its wings fully open or closed do not bring realism in the composition, following the lush positioning of small animals in the art of van Kessel.
In contrast to the exuberance of van Kessel, Coorte is a minimalist. The careful texture of the fruit with stems and leaves is the unique theme of the composition, but he likes the vertical formats and the butterfly comes to cleverly break the monotony of the upper part of the picture.
Such a decorative research based on a humble iconography anticipates Chardin's researches while no link can be imagined between the Middelburg amateur and the French artist of the following century.
A paper on panel 31 x 23 cm, undated but realized around 1695, showing three peaches and a butterfly, was sold for £ 2.05M by Bonhams on December 7, 2011 and for £ 3.45M by Sotheby's on December 3, 2014, lot 37. The image is shared by Wikimedia:.
The still lifes by Coorte have neither predecessor nor successor. Most of them show an arrangement of fruit or asparagus on the corner of a stone ledge. From the mid 1690s, his very unusual practice of oil on paper glued on canvas or panel reinforces the assumption that the author is not a professional artist.
The butterfly appears in the same period. In flight, its wings fully open or closed do not bring realism in the composition, following the lush positioning of small animals in the art of van Kessel.
In contrast to the exuberance of van Kessel, Coorte is a minimalist. The careful texture of the fruit with stems and leaves is the unique theme of the composition, but he likes the vertical formats and the butterfly comes to cleverly break the monotony of the upper part of the picture.
Such a decorative research based on a humble iconography anticipates Chardin's researches while no link can be imagined between the Middelburg amateur and the French artist of the following century.
A paper on panel 31 x 23 cm, undated but realized around 1695, showing three peaches and a butterfly, was sold for £ 2.05M by Bonhams on December 7, 2011 and for £ 3.45M by Sotheby's on December 3, 2014, lot 37. The image is shared by Wikimedia:.
1697 Molitor Stradivarius violin
2010 SOLD for $ 3.6M by Tarisio
The Parisian salon host Juliette Récamier owned a violin by Stradivari. The stradivarius label is dated 1697. A legend attributes a previous ownership of the instrument to Napoléon Bonaparte. After Mme Récamier, the next owner was Molitor, a general in Napoléon's army.
The Molitor was sold for $ 3.6M by Tarisio on October 14, 2010. The image is shared by Wikimedia.
The Molitor was sold for $ 3.6M by Tarisio on October 14, 2010. The image is shared by Wikimedia.
masterpiece
1698 Le Régent
Louvre
The image is shared by Wikimedia.
