Chinese Furniture

Except otherwise stated, all results include the premium.
​See also : Furniture  Early Qing
Calendar : 1570-1599  1680-1699

Later Ming Huanghuali
​Intro

Huanghuali and zitan are both belonging to the category of the rosewoods. Extremely heavy and very dense, the zitan allows a deep and very fine carving. It was preferred by the emperors of China for ceremonial pieces.

Highly appreciated by the Ming, the huanghuali is a tropical hardwood that enables to create furniture with bold shapes. Its color varies from reddish brown to golden yellow while its grains may display seductive pseudo-figurative patterns. Huanghuali literally means yellow pear tree flower.

It is believed that less that 10,000 pieces of furniture in huanghuali are still in existence. Its main source was in Hainan Island. The best pieces were made in the late Ming period and in the Ming-Qing transition. Most of them cannot be dated more precisely.

1
​Wanli - Pair of Cabinets
2020 SOLD for HK$ 57M by Sotheby's

The use of monumental cabinets is a Ming innovation from the Wanli period, between 1572 and 1620 CE. The most precious woods are used with a particular care in the choice of colors. The outer and inner walls are coated with the richest materials. The literati like to use them for keeping their books and scrolls.

A pair of two-level cabinets with wardrobe and hatbox was sold by Sotheby's for $ 1.14M on September 22, 2005, lot 359. The lacquer is painted in gold, with pavilions and scholars in idyllic gardens. Each piece measures 330 x 160 x 70 cm and bears the imperial mark of Wanli.

A pair of three-level bookcases without doors was sold by Sotheby's for HK $ 11.8M on April 8, 2009, lot 1623. They are made of nanmu, one of the rarest woods which had the particularity of being impermeable to water. They are lacquered and richly gilded on a deep carving including pairs of dragons in the clouds. Each piece measures 151 x 91 x 50 cm and bears traces of the imperial mark.

A pair of cabinets that can be used as showcases or bookcases was sold by Sotheby's for HK $ 57M from a lower estimate of HK $ 4M on October 9, 2020, lot 75. They are in huanghuali with doors, a row of outer drawers and an upper three-level open compartment. Each piece measures 193 x 141 x 52 cm. They are of Wanli style without having the mark and are neither lacquered nor decorated.

​2
​Altar Table
2021 SOLD for RMB 115M by Poly

A monumental and massive huanghuali table, 93 cm high, 450 cm wide and 56 cm deep, was sold by Christie's on March 22, 2013 for $ 9.1M, lot 1323 and for RMB 115M by Poly on December 5, 2021, lot 5506. It is illustrated in the post sale review by The Value, including an exploded view.

A single plank 7.6 cm thick is laid on a pair of pedestals, one at each end, resting on a wide shoe through a reticulated panel. The total weight is 289 kg.

This table has a great matching of its top plank with the lower sections and it is believed that all its elements are original to each other. Its use as an altar table is probable but it could also have been used to display precious objects against a wall in a large hall.

It is certainly earlier than the Ming-Qing transition period when huanghuali went to be highly expensive from its increasing shortage so that its use in thick pieces had to be avoided.

Surviving examples of plank-top pedestal tables are very rare. Indeed they are easily demountable and often its elements did not survive together. Such furniture was conceived to be versatile, easy to move and to reassemble in a variety of configurations.

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Set of four Armchairs
2015 SOLD for $ 9.7M by Christie's

A set of eight Ming seats in huanghuali would be the holy grail for a collector. I do not know if such a wonder remains in private hands and the submultiples, four and two, are much in demand. The consistency of colors and grains ensures the homogeneity of a group. The virtuosity of the craftsman is also considered.

The almost square back with the top rail in the form of a yoke or of an official's hat is the guanmaoyi. A pair with arms was sold by Sotheby's on March 23, 2011 for $ 2.77M from a lower estimate of $ 200K.

The quanyi, designating a chair with a circular back, is also known as the horseshoe-back armchair. The best craftsmen round the circle by reducing the number of elements of the crest rail, obtaining a rigidity which also makes it possible to optimize the stretchers. Despite an apparent lightness, their seats are strong.

On March 17, 2015, Christie's dispersed the Ellsworth collection. The bidders recognized the best qualities of a quanyi in the group of four that constituted the lot 41. Moreover the other two pairs that would make it possible to constitute a set of eight were identified in the catalog. That set was sold for $ 9.7M from a lower estimate of $ 800K.

Another homogeneous set of four quanyi in huanghuali from the Ming period passed at Christie's on September 13, 2019, lot 878, from a lower estimate of $ 800K.

4
​Horseshoe Back Folding Armchair, early example
2022 SOLD for HK$ 125M by Sotheby's

The use of folding seats, easily transformable into sedan chairs. is very convenient for garden or travel. The folding chair is named jiaoyi meaning chair with crossed legs.

The Han already used folding stools. Much later, the quality and beauty of the wood distinguish the elites of higher rank, the huanghuali being the high-end. Such brass mounted furniture is fragile and seats in soft wood did not survive.

In the Ming dynasty, jiaoyi were made in two main forms of the back, the horseshoe and the much rarer square with or without arms.

The very elegant quanyi form of armchair is characterized by its horseshoe-shaped rail that serves altogether as backrest and armrest. The quanyi is better suited than other forms of Chinese armchairs for the creation of folding models, its front rail fitting into the curved support of the arms.

​The use of a jiaoyi as an occasional imperial throne is likely under the Ming but was not illustrated until the Qing. A painting by Castiglione features the Qianlong emperor sitting on a folding armchair during a negotiation with Kazakh emissaries.

A jiaoyi of comfortable proportions and simple forms was sold for HK $ 125M from a lower estimate by Sotheby's on October 8, 2022, lot 11. Its size is 71 x 67 x 103 cm.

Its damascened iron strengthening places it in the earliest examples of late Ming horseshoe back folding armchairs. Its elegant plain backrest flanked with carved geometrical borders is unique in that group while the five other surviving examples have dragon or floral carvings.

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Horseshoe Back Folding Armchair
2021 SOLD for HK$ 66M by Christie's

On May 28, 2021, Christie's sold for HK $ 66M from a lower estimate of HK $ 8M a quanyi-shaped jiaoyi 107 cm high in huanghuali, lot 2809. Its carved pierced central splat features a  qilin amidst clouds, carved in relief on a single-panel splat whose upper section is pierced.

A homogeneous group of four Ming armless folding chairs in huanghuali was sold for £ 5.3M  by Bonhams on November 9, 2017, lot 80. They have a rounded square backrest and their headrest is slightly bow-shaped. No similar piece is known.

6
Incense Stand
2022 SOLD for HK$ 71M by Christie's

Incense stands, both in lacquered softwood and in hardwood, are seen in a variety of forms, including round, square, foliate, hexagonal and octagonal and are constructed with three, four or five legs in a variety of heights.

They served as a small altar for offering incense, but were also used to display sculptures and flower arrangements, or at night as a side table to support a candlelight.

Round lacquer incense stands appear to be the most common. Huanghuali is much rarer. The round stand is the xiangji.

A huanghuali xiangji raised on three elegantly shaped cabriole legs, 95 cm high overall and 45 cm in diameter, was sold for $ 5.8M by Christie's on March 16, 2017, lot 613. Cabriole legs are also referred as elephant trunk.

Also with cabriole legs, a five legged huanghuali xiangji 97 cm high overall with a 41 cm circular top panel was sold for HK $ 71M from a lower estimate of HK $ 6M by Christie's  on November 29, 2022, lot 2806.

early Kangxi pair of Huanghuali Cabinets
​2017 SOLD for RMB 99M by Poly

Pair of Huanghuali-wood ‘Phoenix’ Cabinets from Kangxi Period, sold for RMB 99M by Beijing Poly on December 2017, lot 5178, post sale report by The Value Dec 21, 2017. Provide a detailed description. Define the evolution from Wanli style huanghuali cabinets.

Detailed Description of the Pair of Huanghuali-Wood ‘Phoenix’ Cabinets
​The Pair of Huanghuali-wood ‘Phoenix’ Cabinets from the Kangxi Period (1662–1722) of the Qing Dynasty represent a magnificent and rare example of Chinese classical furniture, renowned for their grandeur, craftsmanship, and symbolic motifs.
Crafted from huanghuali (Dalbergia odorifera), a highly prized hardwood known for its rich golden-brown hue, fine grain, and subtle fragrance, these cabinets feature intricate carvings of phoenixes, which symbolize virtue, grace, and prosperity in Chinese culture. The phoenix motifs are likely integrated into the panels or structural elements, adding to the cabinets' auspicious and imperial connotations, as the phoenix was often associated with the empress and harmony.
Each cabinet measures an imposing 314 cm in height, 156.6 cm in width, and 77.5 cm in depth, making them substantial pieces designed for prominent display in grand halls or scholarly quarters.
As a pair, they embody the Qing preference for symmetry in interior design, often placed side by side to create visual balance. The construction employs traditional joinery techniques, such as mortise-and-tenon, ensuring durability without the need for nails, while the wood's natural patterns are highlighted to enhance aesthetic appeal. These cabinets would have served practical purposes, such as storing garments, scrolls, or precious items, while also functioning as status symbols for elite households.
Historically, huanghuali furniture from the Kangxi Period reflects the era's blend of Ming influences with emerging Qing robustness, produced during a time of imperial stability and cultural flourishing under Emperor Kangxi. The provenance traces back to Long Shun Cheng Furniture in Beijing (1956–1983), then to the collection of renowned Chinese film director Li Han-hsiang (1983–1996), who was a noted collector of classical Chinese art. They were previously sold at China Guardian's auction of the Li Han-hsiang Collection on October 9, 1995 (lot 848).
At the Beijing Poly Auction's "Yu Gong II - The Grand Panorama" evening sale on December 18, 2017 (lot 5178), the cabinets were the top lot, starting at RMB 42 million and fetching a hammer price of RMB 86 million after intense bidding. Including the buyer's premium, they realized RMB 98.9 million (approximately US$15.5 million at the time), setting a then-record for Chinese classical furniture. The post-sale report by The Value on December 21, 2017, highlighted them as the most expensive Chinese classical furniture sold in that auction, underscoring their market significance amid growing demand for huanghuali pieces.
Evolution from Wanli-Style Huanghuali Cabinets
Huanghuali cabinets evolved significantly from the Wanli Period (1573–1620) of the late Ming Dynasty to the Kangxi Period of the Qing Dynasty, reflecting broader shifts in Chinese furniture design influenced by social, economic, and cultural changes.
During the Wanli Period, huanghuali cabinets exemplified the Ming Dynasty's minimalist aesthetic, emphasizing elegance, simplicity, and functionality suited to the literati (scholarly elite). A hallmark was the wanligui (Wanli cabinet), a rare square-corner display cabinet with multiple open shelves, first appearing in the mid- to late Ming. These were typically placed in scholars' studios for storing books, scrolls, antiques, writing tools, and fragile items, promoting visual symmetry when paired. Materials shifted from lacquer to hardwoods like huanghuali, prized for its vivid grain and durability, allowing for advanced joinery like mitre, mortise, and tenon without metal fasteners. Designs favored clean lines, gentle curves, and subtle proportions, aligning with Confucian ideals of harmony and restraint. Other forms included yaoxiang (apothecary cabinets) with drawers for medicines or accessories, and sijiangui (compound cabinets) for clothing storage, often massive to convey status. This era's prosperity from trade enabled such refined craftsmanship, as seen in texts like Gao Lian's Zunsheng Bajian (late 16th century), which linked furniture to spiritual well-being.
The transition to the Qing Dynasty, particularly the Kangxi Period, built on Ming foundations but introduced greater robustness and architectural influences, marking the first stage of Qing furniture development (1644–Kangxi reign). Huanghuali remained popular, but designs became more substantial and practical, retaining Ming simplicity while incorporating bolder forms and symbolic carvings (e.g., phoenixes for imperial auspiciousness). Cabinets like the 'Phoenix' pair evolved from Ming sijiangui into larger, more imposing structures with enhanced symmetry and durability, suitable for imperial or elite contexts. The early Qing period (up to Kangxi) preserved Ming characteristics, such as clean lines, due to lingering influences, but shifted toward sturdier builds under artisans like Dashan. By the mid-Qing (Yongzheng–Qianlong reigns), styles grew more ornate with inlays and elaborate decorations, diverging from Ming minimalism toward opulence, though huanghuali's scarcity led to increased use of zitan and other woods. This evolution mirrored Qing imperial expansion, with furniture symbolizing power and cultural synthesis, while Ming pieces focused on scholarly refinement.

May the execution period be tentatively restricted to a decade (to be defined) or to 'early Kangxi' ?

Based on extensive research into auction records, scholarly references on Chinese classical furniture (such as Sarah Handler's Austere Luminosity of Chinese Classical Furniture), and stylistic analyses of comparable huanghuali pieces, the execution period of this specific pair of 'Phoenix' cabinets can indeed be tentatively restricted to 'early Kangxi' (approximately the late 17th century, ca. 1662–1700).
​Reasoning for 'Early Kangxi' Attribution
  • Auction and Provenance Descriptions: The Beijing Poly 2017 catalog and related reports (including the 1995 China Guardian sale of the Li Han-hsiang Collection) attribute the cabinets broadly to the "Kangxi Period" (1662–1722) without a narrower sub-period. However, the style—featuring robust yet transitional Ming influences, intricate phoenix carvings (symbolizing imperial auspiciousness and harmony), and the use of huanghuali hardwood—aligns with early Qing developments under Kangxi, when Ming aesthetics were still prominent before shifting to more ornate mid-Qing (Yongzheng–Qianlong) designs.
  • Stylistic Evolution and Material Use: Huanghuali furniture reached its peak in the late Ming (ca. 1550–1644) and early Qing (ca. 1644–1735), with pieces like display cabinets (e.g., lianggegui or wanligui) often dated to the late 17th/early 18th century. The phoenix motif, common in Qing carvings for marital bliss and prosperity, appears on related furniture (e.g., couchbeds, side tables) from this transitional era, evolving from Ming's austere simplicity (clean lines, minimal decoration) to Qing's bolder relief work. By the mid-Kangxi period and later, huanghuali became scarcer, giving way to zitan and more elaborate inlays, suggesting these cabinets predate that shift.
  • Comparable Examples: Similar huanghuali cabinets and related pieces are consistently dated to the 17th century (late Ming/early Qing), which overlaps with early Kangxi:
    • Square-corner display cabinets (wanligui): Qing, late 17th/early 18th century, with carved motifs like dragons, clouds, and lotus.
    • Tapered cabinets (yuanjiaogui): Late 16th/early 17th century.
    • Table cabinets with carvings: Late Ming–early Qing (17th century).
    • Phoenix-motif pieces (e.g., side tables with back-to-back phoenixes amid clouds): Ming/Qing, 17th century.
Limitations on a Specific Decade
  • While 'early Kangxi' is supported, restricting to a single decade (e.g., 1670–1680 or 1690–1700) is not feasible without further expert analysis (e.g., dendrochronology or unpublished provenance details). Chinese furniture dating relies on style, wood grain, joinery (e.g., mortise-and-tenon), and historical context rather than precise years, and no sources for this pair provide such granularity. Broader attributions like "17th century" or "late 17th/early 18th century" are standard for huanghuali works.
This tentative restriction is well-substantiated by the transitional Ming-Qing characteristics and the scarcity of huanghuali in later Kangxi pieces. If additional details (e.g., from private collections or advanced testing) emerge, the dating could be refined further.

Zitan
Intro

The zitan also named red sandalwood is the wood of a tree 8 meter high from India. Its extreme hardness is conducive to a high relief sculpture and its very dark color is gorgeous. Chinese emperors used it unsparingly for the decorative panels of their palace.

By imperial decree, the zitan wood was available only to the master craftsmen employed by the Woodworks (Muzuo) in the Palace Workshop. It was only used for prestige furniture of the imperial court.

At the time of the Qianlong emperor who was fond of it, the risk of shortage occasioned a specific attention brought to the supply of new lumber and to the preservation of previously made furniture and decoration.

1
​Pair of Qianlong Cabinets
2013 SOLD for RMB 93M by Poly

A cabinet 240 x 210 x 53 cm with four front zitan doors was sold for € 2.53M by Sotheby's on December 15, 2011, lot 35 and passed at the same auction house on October 5, 2016, lot 3303.

Its dense iconography is dominated by two imperial five clawed serpentine dragons on each panel. In the style of Liu Yuan, a master designer and artist during the Kangxi reign, the elder dragon is teaching to the younger how to sail in the clouds and to pursue the sacred pearl. Some less male symbols with flowers and fish soften and complicate the design. The scenes of the four panels are perfectly coherent. 

This theme of the Emperor protecting the imperial family is typical from the reign of Qianlong. The depth of the carving and the figures of the dragons are similar to those of his zitan throne sold for HK $ 86M by Sotheby's on 8 October 2009.

Two two-panel footless cabinets 102 cm high appeared separately at auction after the 2011 sale. Their side by side surface 208 x 110 cm matches the surface of the four panel cabinet of which they match the design with the pair of dragons and the high relief technique. They were respectively sold for € 390K by Sotheby's on June 12, 2018, lot 144, and for € 410K by Christie's on June 12, 2019, lot 76.

The three elements have been united for a total height of 370 cm. The composite cabinet was sold for HK $ 55M by Sotheby's on October 9, 2023, lot 3625. Please watch the video shared by the auction house.
On June 4, 2013, Poly sold for RMB 93M an exceptional pair of zitan cabinets of Qianlong period whose achievement was a real technical feat.

3.25 m high, these cabinets are among the tallest known zitan furniture, although another one 4.40 m high is preserved in Beijing. Its depth of 74 cm is also exceptional. The conception of these cabinets included slits in the boards of doors and sides to relieve the pressure.

There is no evidence that the origin of this pair of furniture is imperial, but they are finely carved in high relief with patterns of dragons and lotus.

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Qianlong Throne
2009 SOLD for HK$ 86M by Sotheby's

As a seat, a throne is nothing but a marquise or a bench. But that name is reserved for the seats used by monarchs to meet their audience during the ceremonies. For such a prestigious use, this piece of furniture is necessarily luxurious.

On October 8, 2009, Sotheby's sold a throne from the Qianlong period for HK $ 86M from a lower estimate of HK $ 20M, lot 1645.

This 1.40 m wide seat is decorated with motifs of the usual symbol of the Chinese Empire, the Dragon.

This wooden piece, although rare and prestigious, will not compare with the throne that adorned the Hall of Supreme Harmony in the Forbidden City in Beijing. Also decorated with dragons, it was made of white marble and jade.

​Lacquer Soft Wood Throne
2019 SOLD for £ 6.1M by Christie's

The art of lacquer requires the intervention of two trades, the lacquerer and the carver. The lacquerer covers the soft wood with very thin layers of lacquer, one after the other, until the desired thickness is obtained. For large thicknesses, this work can take several months. The carver hollows in this thickness the requested figures.

On May 14, 2019, Christie's sold for £ 6.1M from a lower estimate of £ 800K a wide lacquered armchair, lot 60. Please watch the video shared by the auction house.

This large piece of furniture is very finely chiseled on all its surfaces except of course on the seat proper, with a depth of lacquer that required 100 to 150 layers. In an extreme refinement, three colors were used, a classic cinnabar red for the surface and ochre and green in under-layers revealed by the carving.

With its opulence and dimensions, 111 cm high, 115 cm wide and 86 cm deep, this chair is an imperial throne. Its figures include nine five-clawed imperial dragons who pursue the flaming pearl in the clouds. The back side adds other auspices including bats and a pair of fish.

This type of throne was executed during the Qing dynasty, mainly during the reign of Qianlong. The imperial archives record during the ninth year of the reign, 1744 CE, the commission of a lacquered dragon throne which was attributed to a small palace used as an intimate theater lodge in the imperial city. This information does not allow an identification with the piece to be sold but it shows that these fragile furnitures were not ceremonial thrones.

The catalog of the next sale quotes in reference a similar Qing throne, probably earlier. Its lacquer consisted of red, black and green layers on a brown background and contained gold inclusions. This lot was sold for HK $ 13.8M by Christie's on May 29, 2007.