Egypt
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See also : Ancient sculpture Paleography Glass and crystal Glass < 1900
Chronology : Origin
See also : Ancient sculpture Paleography Glass and crystal Glass < 1900
Chronology : Origin
masterpiece
4th dynasty The Great Sphinx
Giza
The Great Sphinx of Giza (Arabic: أبو الهول, Abu al-Haul, meaning "Father of Terror") is one of the most iconic and enigmatic monuments of ancient Egypt—a colossal limestone statue depicting a reclining sphinx, a mythical creature with the body of a lion and the head of a human (likely a pharaoh). Carved directly from the bedrock of the Giza Plateau on the west bank of the Nile, it stands as the oldest known monumental sculpture in Egypt and one of the largest in the world.
Measuring approximately 73 meters (240 feet) long from paw to tail, 19 meters (62 feet) wide at the haunches, and 20 meters (66 feet) high from base to the top of the head, the Sphinx faces east toward the rising sun. Originally, it was likely fully painted—traces of red pigment remain on the face, and the body may have been ochre or other colors—with a royal nemes headdress (striped cloth) and possibly a false beard (fragments found). The face, weathered and missing its nose (likely broken off in medieval times or earlier), still conveys a serene, enigmatic gaze.
Most scholars date it to the Old Kingdom's 4th Dynasty, specifically during the reign of Pharaoh Khafre (ca. 2558–2532 BCE), builder of the second-largest pyramid at Giza. The Sphinx's facial features show striking similarities to Khafre's statues, and it forms part of his funerary complex: it guards the plateau, aligned with his valley temple and causeway. The stone quarried for Khafre's pyramid and temples came from the very pit around the Sphinx, suggesting it was sculpted from the remaining bedrock outcrop. Some alternative theories propose it dates earlier (to Khufu/Cheops) or attribute it to other rulers, but mainstream Egyptology favors Khafre.
In later periods, the Sphinx was revered as Horemakhet ("Horus in the Horizon"), a solar deity. During the New Kingdom (18th Dynasty), Thutmose IV (ca. 1400 BCE) cleared sand from it and erected the Dream Stela between its paws—a granite slab recording a dream in which the Sphinx promised him kingship if he restored it. The stela still stands today.
The Sphinx has endured millennia of erosion from wind, sand, salt, and occasional flooding, with its body particularly damaged (the head, being harder limestone, fared better). Restoration efforts began in ancient times and continue today under Egypt's Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, including protective barriers and ongoing conservation.
In art history and culture, the Great Sphinx symbolizes mystery, guardianship, and pharaonic power—guardian of the necropolis and eternal witness to the pyramids. It has inspired endless fascination, from ancient myths to modern pop culture, tourism (part of the Giza complex, a UNESCO World Heritage site), and fringe theories about hidden chambers or older origins. As of February 2026, it remains a centerpiece of the Giza Plateau, drawing millions of visitors annually, with no major new discoveries directly tied to the Sphinx itself reported recently (though nearby pyramid scans and theories continue to spark interest). Its timeless, watchful presence—set against the pyramids—embodies ancient Egypt's monumental ambition and enduring enigma.
The image is shared with attribution Francesco Gasparetti from Senigallia, Italy, CC BY 2.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
Measuring approximately 73 meters (240 feet) long from paw to tail, 19 meters (62 feet) wide at the haunches, and 20 meters (66 feet) high from base to the top of the head, the Sphinx faces east toward the rising sun. Originally, it was likely fully painted—traces of red pigment remain on the face, and the body may have been ochre or other colors—with a royal nemes headdress (striped cloth) and possibly a false beard (fragments found). The face, weathered and missing its nose (likely broken off in medieval times or earlier), still conveys a serene, enigmatic gaze.
Most scholars date it to the Old Kingdom's 4th Dynasty, specifically during the reign of Pharaoh Khafre (ca. 2558–2532 BCE), builder of the second-largest pyramid at Giza. The Sphinx's facial features show striking similarities to Khafre's statues, and it forms part of his funerary complex: it guards the plateau, aligned with his valley temple and causeway. The stone quarried for Khafre's pyramid and temples came from the very pit around the Sphinx, suggesting it was sculpted from the remaining bedrock outcrop. Some alternative theories propose it dates earlier (to Khufu/Cheops) or attribute it to other rulers, but mainstream Egyptology favors Khafre.
In later periods, the Sphinx was revered as Horemakhet ("Horus in the Horizon"), a solar deity. During the New Kingdom (18th Dynasty), Thutmose IV (ca. 1400 BCE) cleared sand from it and erected the Dream Stela between its paws—a granite slab recording a dream in which the Sphinx promised him kingship if he restored it. The stela still stands today.
The Sphinx has endured millennia of erosion from wind, sand, salt, and occasional flooding, with its body particularly damaged (the head, being harder limestone, fared better). Restoration efforts began in ancient times and continue today under Egypt's Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, including protective barriers and ongoing conservation.
In art history and culture, the Great Sphinx symbolizes mystery, guardianship, and pharaonic power—guardian of the necropolis and eternal witness to the pyramids. It has inspired endless fascination, from ancient myths to modern pop culture, tourism (part of the Giza complex, a UNESCO World Heritage site), and fringe theories about hidden chambers or older origins. As of February 2026, it remains a centerpiece of the Giza Plateau, drawing millions of visitors annually, with no major new discoveries directly tied to the Sphinx itself reported recently (though nearby pyramid scans and theories continue to spark interest). Its timeless, watchful presence—set against the pyramids—embodies ancient Egypt's monumental ambition and enduring enigma.
The image is shared with attribution Francesco Gasparetti from Senigallia, Italy, CC BY 2.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
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masterpiece
2600 BCE Seated Scribe (4th or 5th dynasty), discovered in 1850
Louvre
Discovered in 1850
The image is shared by Wikimedia.
Grok thought :
Quote
Musée du Louvre @MuseeLouvre Sep 1
#UnJourUneOeuvre/#WorkOfTheDay C’est la rentrée ! Comme le célèbre Scribe accroupi, nous voilà prêts à écrire une nouvelle page Emblème du département des Antiquités égyptiennes, le Scribe représente un lettré ayant vécu il y a plus de 4 500 ans, écrivant sur un papyrus
The Seated Scribe (also known as the Squatting Scribe or Le Scribe accroupi) is one of the most celebrated masterpieces of ancient Egyptian art, housed in the Louvre Museum in Paris (accession E 3023). Dating to the Old Kingdom—likely the 4th Dynasty (ca. 2620–2500 BCE) or early 5th Dynasty (ca. 2450–2325 BCE)—this painted limestone statue stands about 53.7 cm (21 inches) tall, 44 cm wide, and 35 cm deep. It depicts a high-ranking official or dignitary seated cross-legged in the traditional scribe's pose, embodying intellectual authority and administrative power in ancient Egyptian society.
The figure sits erect on a low base, his right leg crossed over the left, with a white linen kilt stretched taut across his knees to form a natural writing surface. In his left hand, he holds a partially unrolled papyrus scroll; his right hand (originally clutching a now-missing reed brush or stylus) hovers poised to write from right to left, as was customary. The body is rendered with remarkable naturalism for the era: a realistic paunch with rolls of fat, broad shoulders, and subtle musculature that contrast sharply with the idealized, youthful athleticism typical of pharaonic statues. The skin is painted reddish-brown (standard for male figures), the kilt white, and the nipples marked by small wooden plugs. Most strikingly, the eyes are inlaid with rock crystal (for the whites and irises) set in copper frames with a faint rim of magnesite or similar material, giving them an intense, lifelike sparkle that seems to follow the viewer around the room.
This realism—especially in the alert, intelligent gaze, individualized facial features, and corpulent yet dignified physique—sets the Seated Scribe apart from rigid royal portraits. It likely represented a high dignitary, possibly a vizier or royal relative, emphasizing the elevated status of scribes who recorded knowledge, managed bureaucracy, and ensured the eternal order (ma'at).
The statue was discovered on November 19, 1850, by French archaeologist Auguste Mariette during excavations at Saqqara, the vast necropolis near Memphis. Mariette, sent by the Louvre to acquire antiquities, unearthed it in a ruined mastaba (tomb) north of the avenue of sphinxes leading to the Serapeum. The find was part of a group of seven painted limestone statues from a single tomb context (possibly belonging to an official named Kai or similar), though the scribe's exact identity remains unknown—the base bearing his name and titles was likely lost or damaged during discovery. Mariette described the moment of revelation with excitement, noting the vivid eyes and lifelike quality that caused a sensation among artists and scholars when exhibited. The Louvre acquired it in 1854, and it has remained a centerpiece of the Egyptian collection ever since.
In art history, the Seated Scribe exemplifies the Old Kingdom's peak in portraiture and polychromy, blending idealized symbolism with portrait-like individuality. Its compelling presence—those piercing eyes that appear to watch you—has made it an enduring icon of intellectual pursuit and human insight across millennia. As of February 2026, it continues to draw crowds in the Louvre's Sully wing (Department of Egyptian Antiquities, room near the Crypt of the Sphinx), symbolizing the timeless value Egyptians placed on literacy, wisdom, and the written word as pathways to eternity.
The image is shared by Wikimedia.
Grok thought :
Quote
Musée du Louvre @MuseeLouvre Sep 1
#UnJourUneOeuvre/#WorkOfTheDay C’est la rentrée ! Comme le célèbre Scribe accroupi, nous voilà prêts à écrire une nouvelle page Emblème du département des Antiquités égyptiennes, le Scribe représente un lettré ayant vécu il y a plus de 4 500 ans, écrivant sur un papyrus
- The Louvre's post highlights the Seated Scribe statue as a back-to-school symbol, tying its poised writing pose to new beginnings; this 4th Dynasty artifact (c. 2620–2500 BCE) exemplifies Old Kingdom realism, contrasting typical stylized Egyptian figures.
- Discovered in 1850 at Saqqara by Auguste Mariette, the statue's eyes—crafted from rock crystal, magnesite (for whites), and copper-arsenic inlay—create a startling lifelike gaze that reflects light, evoking vitality absent in many contemporaries.
- Visitor reactions emphasize the in-person impact, with one reply calling the stare a "shock" no photo captures, underscoring the piece's role in the Egyptian Antiquities department as a must-see for its blend of naturalism and ancient innovation.
The Seated Scribe (also known as the Squatting Scribe or Le Scribe accroupi) is one of the most celebrated masterpieces of ancient Egyptian art, housed in the Louvre Museum in Paris (accession E 3023). Dating to the Old Kingdom—likely the 4th Dynasty (ca. 2620–2500 BCE) or early 5th Dynasty (ca. 2450–2325 BCE)—this painted limestone statue stands about 53.7 cm (21 inches) tall, 44 cm wide, and 35 cm deep. It depicts a high-ranking official or dignitary seated cross-legged in the traditional scribe's pose, embodying intellectual authority and administrative power in ancient Egyptian society.
The figure sits erect on a low base, his right leg crossed over the left, with a white linen kilt stretched taut across his knees to form a natural writing surface. In his left hand, he holds a partially unrolled papyrus scroll; his right hand (originally clutching a now-missing reed brush or stylus) hovers poised to write from right to left, as was customary. The body is rendered with remarkable naturalism for the era: a realistic paunch with rolls of fat, broad shoulders, and subtle musculature that contrast sharply with the idealized, youthful athleticism typical of pharaonic statues. The skin is painted reddish-brown (standard for male figures), the kilt white, and the nipples marked by small wooden plugs. Most strikingly, the eyes are inlaid with rock crystal (for the whites and irises) set in copper frames with a faint rim of magnesite or similar material, giving them an intense, lifelike sparkle that seems to follow the viewer around the room.
This realism—especially in the alert, intelligent gaze, individualized facial features, and corpulent yet dignified physique—sets the Seated Scribe apart from rigid royal portraits. It likely represented a high dignitary, possibly a vizier or royal relative, emphasizing the elevated status of scribes who recorded knowledge, managed bureaucracy, and ensured the eternal order (ma'at).
The statue was discovered on November 19, 1850, by French archaeologist Auguste Mariette during excavations at Saqqara, the vast necropolis near Memphis. Mariette, sent by the Louvre to acquire antiquities, unearthed it in a ruined mastaba (tomb) north of the avenue of sphinxes leading to the Serapeum. The find was part of a group of seven painted limestone statues from a single tomb context (possibly belonging to an official named Kai or similar), though the scribe's exact identity remains unknown—the base bearing his name and titles was likely lost or damaged during discovery. Mariette described the moment of revelation with excitement, noting the vivid eyes and lifelike quality that caused a sensation among artists and scholars when exhibited. The Louvre acquired it in 1854, and it has remained a centerpiece of the Egyptian collection ever since.
In art history, the Seated Scribe exemplifies the Old Kingdom's peak in portraiture and polychromy, blending idealized symbolism with portrait-like individuality. Its compelling presence—those piercing eyes that appear to watch you—has made it an enduring icon of intellectual pursuit and human insight across millennia. As of February 2026, it continues to draw crowds in the Louvre's Sully wing (Department of Egyptian Antiquities, room near the Crypt of the Sphinx), symbolizing the timeless value Egyptians placed on literacy, wisdom, and the written word as pathways to eternity.
5th Dynasty around 2400 BCE
Intro
The Egyptian civilization boomed under the Fourth Dynasty, but the pyramids were the domains of the kings. Under the late 5th dynasty, ca 2400 BCE which was around 100 years after the Great Pyramids, they built a great necropolis near the Pyramid of Khufu at Giza.
Early Egyptians were cautious. In order to preserve the soul in case of damage to the mummy, they placed several painted limestone figures of the deceased as a young and vigorous man in the mortuary chamber also known as serdab. All kinds of offerings that could be useful to the deceased were accumulated therein.
The sculptures were made in the Royal workshops in Memphis. The memorial sculpture was inscribed with the name and social rank of the deceased and his family while the secondary figures were not. The remarkable anthropomorphic realism did not aim for a physical resemblance to the deceased and many of them are similar in face and expression.
Early Egyptians were cautious. In order to preserve the soul in case of damage to the mummy, they placed several painted limestone figures of the deceased as a young and vigorous man in the mortuary chamber also known as serdab. All kinds of offerings that could be useful to the deceased were accumulated therein.
The sculptures were made in the Royal workshops in Memphis. The memorial sculpture was inscribed with the name and social rank of the deceased and his family while the secondary figures were not. The remarkable anthropomorphic realism did not aim for a physical resemblance to the deceased and many of them are similar in face and expression.
1
Inspector Sekhemka
2014 SOLD for £ 15.8M by Christie's
On July 10, 2014, Christie's sold for £ 15.8M from a lower estimate of £ 4M the statuette of Sekhemka, Inspector of the scribes, 75 cm high. This big piece is in exceptional condition. Please watch the video shared by the auction house.
The man is sitting in a serene attitude, surrounded by his wife and his favorite son, both mid-scale. All three are named, with their titles. The wife starts a loving gesture. Hieroglyphs are detailing the long list of acceptable offerings.
The attitude of the man is very beautiful, with a serious gaze and the hint of a smile. He holds a partly opened scroll covered with fragile inscriptions that remain in perfect condition. The faces of the cube on which he sits are beautifully carved with offering bearers bringing geese, calves and flowers.
The man is sitting in a serene attitude, surrounded by his wife and his favorite son, both mid-scale. All three are named, with their titles. The wife starts a loving gesture. Hieroglyphs are detailing the long list of acceptable offerings.
The attitude of the man is very beautiful, with a serious gaze and the hint of a smile. He holds a partly opened scroll covered with fragile inscriptions that remain in perfect condition. The faces of the cube on which he sits are beautifully carved with offering bearers bringing geese, calves and flowers.
2
Weri
2022 SOLD for $ 9.9M by Sotheby's
The serdab of husband and wife Weri and Meti was excavated at Giza in 1913. It included seven limestone figures.
The 80 cm high figure of a standing man with a leg forward is certainly depicting Weri as a quietly smiling handsome young adult. It has been originally strengthened by a back pillar. Traces of red, yellow, blue, turquoise and black pigments were preserved. It was sold for $ 9.9M from a lower estimate of $ 3M by Sotheby's on January 27, 2022, lot 17. Please watch the video shared by the auction house.
The 80 cm high figure of a standing man with a leg forward is certainly depicting Weri as a quietly smiling handsome young adult. It has been originally strengthened by a back pillar. Traces of red, yellow, blue, turquoise and black pigments were preserved. It was sold for $ 9.9M from a lower estimate of $ 3M by Sotheby's on January 27, 2022, lot 17. Please watch the video shared by the auction house.
#AuctionUpdate: An Egyptian limestone Figure of a Man, dating to the late 5th Dynasty, circa 2440-2355 B.C., achieves $9.9M after a heated 12-minute bidding battle. #SothebysMasters pic.twitter.com/NXkU7p7Yu2
— Sotheby's (@Sothebys) January 27, 2022
3
Me-her-nefer
2022 SOLD for £ 6M by Christie's
A pair of Egyptian limestone groups was presented in the early 1760s to the new King George III from his ambassador in Constantinople who was also a trade envoy. They were donated before 1778 by the King to Thomas Worsley, his Surveyor-General of the Office of Works. They had been amidst the very first statues from the Egyptian Old Kingdom to reach England.
At that time when the Rosetta stone was not yet discovered, Egyptology was in infancy. The location of the finding was not memorized but both groups obviously came from the same serdab, certainly at Giza or Saqqara in the late 5th Dynasty.
A wrong interpretation as a representation of Isis and Osiris led to an incorrect adjustment of the heads on other bodies which was later restored when the hieroglyph readings made clear that the groups gathered three generations of a family.
One of the groups, 65 cm high carved from a single stone, was kept until current days in Worsley's family hall in Yorkshire. Its painting has faded. It was sold for £ 6M by Christie's on July 7, 2022, lot 10.
It displays a handsome seated man accompanied by a young boy, both gently smiling. The name of the family leader is partly scraped but has been interpreted as Me-her-nefer, not known in the in period records. The boy is identified in a later inscription in the statue as a king's agent in the land of the bow designating Nubia.
A portion of his right arm and leg is missing. It was arguably linking to a figure of his loving wife in front of him, as suggested from a similar example in the Brooklyn Museum, possibly sheared in a later antique time when the female representations were not welcomed or to remove the shame of a divorce.
The boy is interestingly in the same scale as his father. He is standing straight in full nudity with an uncircumcised penis. An index finger is held on the chin in a typical childish gesture of that time while the left arm is gently resting on the shoulder of the dad.
The fate of the other group is not discussed in the catalogue.
The funerary statue of Ka-nefer, a priest of Ptah and foreman of craftsmen, was sold for $ 2.8M by Christie's on December 9, 2005, lot 48. This limestone group is 36 cm high. Traces of original black and red pigments are preserved on the collar.
The deceased is seated on a high bench with his back against a support. He wears a kilt. The legs ara parallel and the hands are resting on the thighs. The left hand is open and the right hand is holding a cylindrical artefact. The musculature is well defined. He is identified by a hieroglyphic inscription on his feet.
The man is flanked on both side by a member on his family in a much smaller scale. Both are identified by their name and social position. The wife is a Royal confidant and the son is another overseer of craftsmen. Each of them is affectionately embracing Ka-nefer's leg.
At that time when the Rosetta stone was not yet discovered, Egyptology was in infancy. The location of the finding was not memorized but both groups obviously came from the same serdab, certainly at Giza or Saqqara in the late 5th Dynasty.
A wrong interpretation as a representation of Isis and Osiris led to an incorrect adjustment of the heads on other bodies which was later restored when the hieroglyph readings made clear that the groups gathered three generations of a family.
One of the groups, 65 cm high carved from a single stone, was kept until current days in Worsley's family hall in Yorkshire. Its painting has faded. It was sold for £ 6M by Christie's on July 7, 2022, lot 10.
It displays a handsome seated man accompanied by a young boy, both gently smiling. The name of the family leader is partly scraped but has been interpreted as Me-her-nefer, not known in the in period records. The boy is identified in a later inscription in the statue as a king's agent in the land of the bow designating Nubia.
A portion of his right arm and leg is missing. It was arguably linking to a figure of his loving wife in front of him, as suggested from a similar example in the Brooklyn Museum, possibly sheared in a later antique time when the female representations were not welcomed or to remove the shame of a divorce.
The boy is interestingly in the same scale as his father. He is standing straight in full nudity with an uncircumcised penis. An index finger is held on the chin in a typical childish gesture of that time while the left arm is gently resting on the shoulder of the dad.
The fate of the other group is not discussed in the catalogue.
The funerary statue of Ka-nefer, a priest of Ptah and foreman of craftsmen, was sold for $ 2.8M by Christie's on December 9, 2005, lot 48. This limestone group is 36 cm high. Traces of original black and red pigments are preserved on the collar.
The deceased is seated on a high bench with his back against a support. He wears a kilt. The legs ara parallel and the hands are resting on the thighs. The left hand is open and the right hand is holding a cylindrical artefact. The musculature is well defined. He is identified by a hieroglyphic inscription on his feet.
The man is flanked on both side by a member on his family in a much smaller scale. Both are identified by their name and social position. The wife is a Royal confidant and the son is another overseer of craftsmen. Each of them is affectionately embracing Ka-nefer's leg.
18th Dynasty - Sekhmet
2015 SOLD for $ 4.2M by Sotheby's
Living conditions are harsh in ancient Egypt and the most outstanding gods are rarely peaceful. Pharaoh is expecting help and protection from them. The gods and goddesses have animal heads, which allows the worshipers to appreciate differences and strengths in their temperament. The rest of the body is human.
The lioness-headed goddess Sekhmet is ranked high in that pantheon. A lioness is a wild mother whom you should not try to annoy. Sekhmet is powerful and leads the king to his success in war. She does not tolerate the odd and her cult is difficult. She is not joking and her expression is impassive despite the offerings.
During the 18th dynasty, Amenhotep III resolutely places himself under the protection of Sekhmet. This alliance is favorable as no significant event disturbs the outer peace during his long reign, around 3400 years ago.
This Pharaoh multiplies the figures of Sekhmet and his funerary temple contains nearly 700 of them. The priestesses were committed to serve a different statue every day of the year.
One of these monumental granite figures, 2.10 m high, had belonged to the collections of John Lennon and A. Alfred Taubman. It was sold for $ 4.2M from a lower estimate of $ 3M by Sotheby's on December 8, 2015, lot 23.
The goddess wearing a long tight dress is sitting on her throne. She is physically identified by her feline head but her mane is covered by a wig. Cartouches including the name of Amenhotep III confirm the hypothesis that it was carved during that reign.
The lioness-headed goddess Sekhmet is ranked high in that pantheon. A lioness is a wild mother whom you should not try to annoy. Sekhmet is powerful and leads the king to his success in war. She does not tolerate the odd and her cult is difficult. She is not joking and her expression is impassive despite the offerings.
During the 18th dynasty, Amenhotep III resolutely places himself under the protection of Sekhmet. This alliance is favorable as no significant event disturbs the outer peace during his long reign, around 3400 years ago.
This Pharaoh multiplies the figures of Sekhmet and his funerary temple contains nearly 700 of them. The priestesses were committed to serve a different statue every day of the year.
One of these monumental granite figures, 2.10 m high, had belonged to the collections of John Lennon and A. Alfred Taubman. It was sold for $ 4.2M from a lower estimate of $ 3M by Sotheby's on December 8, 2015, lot 23.
The goddess wearing a long tight dress is sitting on her throne. She is physically identified by her feline head but her mane is covered by a wig. Cartouches including the name of Amenhotep III confirm the hypothesis that it was carved during that reign.
masterpiece
1345 BCE Nefertiti Bust
Neues Museum Berlin
Discovered in 1912.
The image is shared by Wikimedia.
Quote :
Ancient Egypt @Ancient_Egypt_X Aug 18
Bust of queen Nefertiti in the Neues Museum, Berlin #ancientegypt
The Bust of Nefertiti, created around 1340–1345 BCE during Egypt's 18th Dynasty (Amarna Period), stands as one of the most iconic works in art history. Crafted by the royal sculptor Thutmose from a limestone core coated in painted stucco, it depicts Queen Nefertiti—wife of Pharaoh Akhenaten—with extraordinary realism and preservation of its vibrant colors.
Its legacy in art history is profound and multifaceted:
The image is shared by Wikimedia.
Quote :
Ancient Egypt @Ancient_Egypt_X Aug 18
Bust of queen Nefertiti in the Neues Museum, Berlin #ancientegypt
- The bust of Nefertiti, showcased in the Neues Museum in Berlin, was discovered in 1912 by German archaeologist Ludwig Borchardt in Amarna, Egypt, and its striking preservation suggests it may have been a sculptor’s model rather than a finished public piece, challenging the narrative of it being a royal portrait.
- Recent studies, including pigment analysis from the 1920s by Borchardt and modern non-invasive techniques, confirm the use of authentic ancient materials like copper-based blue frit and iron oxide, countering claims of it being a fake, though debates persist due to the missing left eye and its idealized features.
- The artifact’s location in Berlin fuels an ongoing repatriation debate, with Egypt arguing it was illegally exported, supported by a 2016 study from the University of Tübingen highlighting unequal colonial-era excavation agreements, yet Germany maintains it was legally acquired under 1913 permits.
The Bust of Nefertiti, created around 1340–1345 BCE during Egypt's 18th Dynasty (Amarna Period), stands as one of the most iconic works in art history. Crafted by the royal sculptor Thutmose from a limestone core coated in painted stucco, it depicts Queen Nefertiti—wife of Pharaoh Akhenaten—with extraordinary realism and preservation of its vibrant colors.
Its legacy in art history is profound and multifaceted:
- Masterpiece of ancient Egyptian realism — Unlike much of traditional Egyptian art, which favored idealized, symbolic forms, the bust blends stylized perfection (near-mirror symmetry, serene composure) with lifelike individuality. Features like the long "swan-like" neck, high cheekbones, chiseled jawline, kohl-rimmed eyes, and subtle smile capture a specific person rather than a generic ideal. The preserved pigments (Egyptian blue, red ochre, black from coal and wax, white chalk) give it an unparalleled vividness, making it feel strikingly modern even after over 3,300 years.m
- Icon of timeless beauty — Often called "the most beautiful woman in the world," Nefertiti's image has become a universal symbol of feminine elegance and power. Discovered in 1912 in Thutmose's workshop at Amarna by German archaeologist Ludwig Borchardt, it went on public display in Berlin in 1924 and instantly captivated global audiences.
- Influence across eras — The bust ranks among the most copied and reproduced works from ancient Egypt, comparable only to Tutankhamun's mask. It has inspired fashion, cosmetics, contemporary art (e.g., reimaginings addressing race, gender, and power), beauty products (from makeup lines to the "Nefertiti Lift" procedure), and pop culture items worldwide. Artists and designers continue to draw from its confident gaze and poised features.
- Broader cultural and political significance — Housed at Berlin's Neues Museum since its postwar reopening, it symbolizes both ancient Egyptian artistic achievement and the legacies of colonialism—sparking ongoing debates about repatriation to Egypt. As of 2026, despite renewed calls (especially tied to Egypt's Grand Egyptian Museum developments), Germany maintains its legal acquisition and keeps it in Berlin.
1330 BCE Portrait of a Pharaoh
2019 SOLD for £ 4.7M by Christie's
A 28 cm high fragmentary figure in brown quartzite was sold for £ 4.7M by Christie's on July 4, 2019, lot 110. This head is capped with the double crown which is an attribute of the main god, Amen, an equivalent of the future Zeus of the Greeks.
A young man with such an attribute is necessarily a reigning pharaoh. Amen is a multiple god who has no personal figuration. Pharaoh is his incarnation.
The heretic king Akhenaten had replaced the worship of Amen by that of the solar circle Aten, certainly for political reasons. He thus escaped the hold by the Theban priests. He had established his capital in the middle of the desert, on a site whose Arab name will be Amarna. This religious revolution was accompanied by an artistic breakthrough. Amarnian artists have for the first time sought a naturalistic representation. Nefertiti was a wife of Akhenaten.
The head for sale is carved with realism, attesting to the post-Amarna period. The only candidate is Tutankhamen, the son of Akhenaten, who returned to the cult of Amen in the third year of his reign around 1330 BCE after a transition of undocumented events that looks like a huge mess. The last two pharaohs of his eighteenth dynasty, Ay and Horemheb, are senior dignitaries. The 19th dynasty, that of the first Ramesses, brings another style.
Fortunately the effigy of Tutankhamen is exceptionally well known. The quartzite head is recognizable by the unhealthy depression between eyes and eyebrows and by the weakness of the lower lip, resulting from the full consanguinity of his parents.
A young man with such an attribute is necessarily a reigning pharaoh. Amen is a multiple god who has no personal figuration. Pharaoh is his incarnation.
The heretic king Akhenaten had replaced the worship of Amen by that of the solar circle Aten, certainly for political reasons. He thus escaped the hold by the Theban priests. He had established his capital in the middle of the desert, on a site whose Arab name will be Amarna. This religious revolution was accompanied by an artistic breakthrough. Amarnian artists have for the first time sought a naturalistic representation. Nefertiti was a wife of Akhenaten.
The head for sale is carved with realism, attesting to the post-Amarna period. The only candidate is Tutankhamen, the son of Akhenaten, who returned to the cult of Amen in the third year of his reign around 1330 BCE after a transition of undocumented events that looks like a huge mess. The last two pharaohs of his eighteenth dynasty, Ay and Horemheb, are senior dignitaries. The 19th dynasty, that of the first Ramesses, brings another style.
Fortunately the effigy of Tutankhamen is exceptionally well known. The quartzite head is recognizable by the unhealthy depression between eyes and eyebrows and by the weakness of the lower lip, resulting from the full consanguinity of his parents.
masterpiece
1325 BCE Funerary Mask of Tutankhamun
Cairo Museum
Discovered in 1925.
The image is shared by Wikimedia with attribution Roland Unger, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons.
The golden death mask of Tutankhamun (also known as King Tut) is arguably the most iconic artifact from ancient Egypt, a stunning funerary mask crafted around 1323 BCE during the 18th Dynasty of the New Kingdom. Made primarily of solid gold (about 11 kg or over 22 pounds), it covers the head and shoulders of the young pharaoh's mummified remains, depicting him as the god Osiris with divine attributes for protection in the afterlife.
The mask measures approximately 54 cm (21 inches) tall and features exquisite craftsmanship: hammered gold sheets joined together, inlaid with semi-precious stones and glass paste—including deep blue lapis lazuli for the striped nemes headdress, turquoise, carnelian, obsidian for the eyes, and quartz for the whites. The eyes are rimmed in bold blue, the eyebrows arched, and the serene face bears a subtle, youthful expression with full lips and high cheekbones. On the forehead sits the royal uraeus (rearing cobra) combined with the vulture goddess Nekhbet, symbolizing dominion over Upper and Lower Egypt. A long, plaited false beard (re-attached after a 2015 incident) extends downward, and the shoulders bear protective spells from Chapter 151b of the Book of the Dead in hieroglyphs.
The back reveals more hieroglyphic inscriptions and the elaborate headdress design.
As of February 2026, the mask is on public display at the Grand Egyptian Museum (GEM) near the Pyramids of Giza in Cairo, where it forms the centerpiece of the Tutankhamun galleries alongside over 5,000 other objects from his tomb (KV62). The GEM fully opened in late 2025 after years of preparation, reuniting the collection in a state-of-the-art space.
The mask's discovery came on October 28, 1925, during the painstaking clearance of Tutankhamun's tomb by British archaeologist Howard Carter and his team, sponsored by Lord Carnarvon (who died in 1923). The tomb itself was famously found on November 4, 1922, when a staircase was uncovered beneath debris in the Valley of the Kings. After years of excavating layered shrines and nested coffins, the team reached the innermost solid-gold coffin. As Carter and assistants lifted its lid in the burial chamber, they revealed the wrapped mummy topped by the gleaming mask—untouched for over 3,300 years.
Carter described the moment with awe: the "golden effigy of the young king of magnificent workmanship" filled the interior, its tranquil face symbolizing eternal life. The scene was captured in photographs, including Carter examining the unwrapped mummy.
In art history and popular culture, the mask symbolizes ancient Egyptian mastery of metallurgy, symbolism, and idealized portraiture. It has sparked endless fascination, from "Tut-mania" in the 1920s to modern debates: some scholars argue (based on pierced ears, gold composition differences, and cartouche alterations) that it was originally made for a female ruler—possibly Nefertiti or another—and repurposed for Tutankhamun after his unexpected death at around 19. Regardless, its timeless beauty and technical perfection make it one of the greatest treasures of antiquity, embodying the pharaoh's journey to immortality.
The image is shared by Wikimedia with attribution Roland Unger, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons.
The golden death mask of Tutankhamun (also known as King Tut) is arguably the most iconic artifact from ancient Egypt, a stunning funerary mask crafted around 1323 BCE during the 18th Dynasty of the New Kingdom. Made primarily of solid gold (about 11 kg or over 22 pounds), it covers the head and shoulders of the young pharaoh's mummified remains, depicting him as the god Osiris with divine attributes for protection in the afterlife.
The mask measures approximately 54 cm (21 inches) tall and features exquisite craftsmanship: hammered gold sheets joined together, inlaid with semi-precious stones and glass paste—including deep blue lapis lazuli for the striped nemes headdress, turquoise, carnelian, obsidian for the eyes, and quartz for the whites. The eyes are rimmed in bold blue, the eyebrows arched, and the serene face bears a subtle, youthful expression with full lips and high cheekbones. On the forehead sits the royal uraeus (rearing cobra) combined with the vulture goddess Nekhbet, symbolizing dominion over Upper and Lower Egypt. A long, plaited false beard (re-attached after a 2015 incident) extends downward, and the shoulders bear protective spells from Chapter 151b of the Book of the Dead in hieroglyphs.
The back reveals more hieroglyphic inscriptions and the elaborate headdress design.
As of February 2026, the mask is on public display at the Grand Egyptian Museum (GEM) near the Pyramids of Giza in Cairo, where it forms the centerpiece of the Tutankhamun galleries alongside over 5,000 other objects from his tomb (KV62). The GEM fully opened in late 2025 after years of preparation, reuniting the collection in a state-of-the-art space.
The mask's discovery came on October 28, 1925, during the painstaking clearance of Tutankhamun's tomb by British archaeologist Howard Carter and his team, sponsored by Lord Carnarvon (who died in 1923). The tomb itself was famously found on November 4, 1922, when a staircase was uncovered beneath debris in the Valley of the Kings. After years of excavating layered shrines and nested coffins, the team reached the innermost solid-gold coffin. As Carter and assistants lifted its lid in the burial chamber, they revealed the wrapped mummy topped by the gleaming mask—untouched for over 3,300 years.
Carter described the moment with awe: the "golden effigy of the young king of magnificent workmanship" filled the interior, its tranquil face symbolizing eternal life. The scene was captured in photographs, including Carter examining the unwrapped mummy.
In art history and popular culture, the mask symbolizes ancient Egyptian mastery of metallurgy, symbolism, and idealized portraiture. It has sparked endless fascination, from "Tut-mania" in the 1920s to modern debates: some scholars argue (based on pierced ears, gold composition differences, and cartouche alterations) that it was originally made for a female ruler—possibly Nefertiti or another—and repurposed for Tutankhamun after his unexpected death at around 19. Regardless, its timeless beauty and technical perfection make it one of the greatest treasures of antiquity, embodying the pharaoh's journey to immortality.
around 300 CE Coptic Codex
2024 SOLD for £ 3.07M by Christie's
In the early 1950s a manuscript on papyrus in a bold Coptic script was unearthed from a cache in dry sands of Upper Egypt. The now extinct Coptic was the language used by St. Anthony, the first Christian ascetic hermit of the desert from about 275 CE.
It is arguably the earliest surviving Christian liturgical book. The texts are dispositioned in two columns per page, all by the same scribe. The pages were originally paginated up to 136 in a square format 146 x 152 mm of 68 folios. 51 folios are remaining. Some pages are complete. A few corrections above the line had been made by the scribe.
This codex is dated from middle 3rd century to early 4th century from paleographic considerations. That period was confirmed in 2020 by radiocarbon analysis. At that time literary texts wee still preserved in papyrus rolls. The Christian church was encouraging the adoption of the user friendly codex format for enduring records, with both sides being written on. The pages in a codex are stitched together.
This work is therefore contemporary to the invention in Egypt around 320 of the monastic life by St. Pachomius in the follow of St. Anthony.
Its five texts include the complete Biblical books 1-Peter and Jonah. The Peri Pascha Meliton and the 2-Maccabees are incomplete. A non Biblical text may be a homily for the use of a monastic community. The whole constitutes a lectionary related to the Easter themes of martyrdom and resurrection. The Jewish Maccabees had been early monotheistic martyrs, and the Jewish story of Jonah and the whale prefigures the resurrection of Christ.
It was identified as the Crosby codex from a donator of the University of Mississippi where it remained until 1981, and later as the Crosby-Schøyen codex after Mr Schøyen managed to re-unite some fragments to the parent manuscript.
It was sold for £ 3.07M from a lower estimate of £ 2M by Christie's on June 11, 2024, lot 1 in the sale of the Schøyen collection. The papyruses have been vacuum sealed within double-sided archival plexiglass plates. Please watch the video shared by the auction house.
It is arguably the earliest surviving Christian liturgical book. The texts are dispositioned in two columns per page, all by the same scribe. The pages were originally paginated up to 136 in a square format 146 x 152 mm of 68 folios. 51 folios are remaining. Some pages are complete. A few corrections above the line had been made by the scribe.
This codex is dated from middle 3rd century to early 4th century from paleographic considerations. That period was confirmed in 2020 by radiocarbon analysis. At that time literary texts wee still preserved in papyrus rolls. The Christian church was encouraging the adoption of the user friendly codex format for enduring records, with both sides being written on. The pages in a codex are stitched together.
This work is therefore contemporary to the invention in Egypt around 320 of the monastic life by St. Pachomius in the follow of St. Anthony.
Its five texts include the complete Biblical books 1-Peter and Jonah. The Peri Pascha Meliton and the 2-Maccabees are incomplete. A non Biblical text may be a homily for the use of a monastic community. The whole constitutes a lectionary related to the Easter themes of martyrdom and resurrection. The Jewish Maccabees had been early monotheistic martyrs, and the Jewish story of Jonah and the whale prefigures the resurrection of Christ.
It was identified as the Crosby codex from a donator of the University of Mississippi where it remained until 1981, and later as the Crosby-Schøyen codex after Mr Schøyen managed to re-unite some fragments to the parent manuscript.
It was sold for £ 3.07M from a lower estimate of £ 2M by Christie's on June 11, 2024, lot 1 in the sale of the Schøyen collection. The papyruses have been vacuum sealed within double-sided archival plexiglass plates. Please watch the video shared by the auction house.
Manuscripts masterpieces from The Schøyen Collection will be on view in Paris from April 18-23! Come and see the Crosby-Schøyen Codex, which is the earliest known book in private hands, and one of the earliest books in existence (middle 3rd century into 4th century): pic.twitter.com/w9la70KmVK
— Christie's Books (@ChristiesBKS) April 16, 2024
1340-1345 Mamluk Candlestick
2011 SOLD for £ 4.5M by Sotheby's
In Egypt, the later reign of the Mamluk sultan An Nasir Muhammad was a short period of stability with the strengthening of the role of the viceroys who were emirs in charge of overseeing the territories of the kingdom. Being constantly on the field of war, the emirs left the direction of their home to mayors or major-domos who had their own place in the high nobility.
A Mamluk candlestick reflects this hierarchical structure. It was sold for £ 4.5M from a lower estimate of £ 2M by Sotheby's on April 6, 2011.
The base is a truncated cone slightly curved, 34 cm in its largest diameter. It is topped by a stick that supports the candle holder, also a truncated cone, for a total height of 38 cm. This piece of brass inlaid with copper and silver is decorated on its whole surface with inscriptions, armorials and other animal, vegetal and geometric motifs.
The white eagles and cups in cartouches shaped as reversed teardrops are the blazon of the emir Tuquztamur. The inscriptions testify to the faithfulness of the major-domo of his noble house.
The identification of the Emir enables to date the candlestick with some accuracy because his role of viceroy was limited to a period of five years (741-746 AH, 1340-1345 AD). Curiously, this information can not locate the object, since the emir executed several successive appointments in Egypt and Syria.
A Mamluk candlestick reflects this hierarchical structure. It was sold for £ 4.5M from a lower estimate of £ 2M by Sotheby's on April 6, 2011.
The base is a truncated cone slightly curved, 34 cm in its largest diameter. It is topped by a stick that supports the candle holder, also a truncated cone, for a total height of 38 cm. This piece of brass inlaid with copper and silver is decorated on its whole surface with inscriptions, armorials and other animal, vegetal and geometric motifs.
The white eagles and cups in cartouches shaped as reversed teardrops are the blazon of the emir Tuquztamur. The inscriptions testify to the faithfulness of the major-domo of his noble house.
The identification of the Emir enables to date the candlestick with some accuracy because his role of viceroy was limited to a period of five years (741-746 AH, 1340-1345 AD). Curiously, this information can not locate the object, since the emir executed several successive appointments in Egypt and Syria.
1356 Mamluk Mosque Lamp
2024 SOLD for £ 5.1M by Bonhams
A mosque lamp forwards the word of God through the dedication of a powerful ruler. Hanging from the ceiling, the enameled glass lamp shines like a star over the believers in the darkness of the building. The technique of simultaneously gilding and enameling glass in a single firing was almost unique to the Mamluk court.
A magnificent example 38.5 cm high provides through its transparent walls a verse of the Qur'an and the name, title and shield of its patron the powerful Mamluk Emir Sarghitmish. The verse states that 'Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth. His light is like a niche in which there is a lamp'. It has the typical form of a rounded angular body with flaring conical mouth, with six applied loop handles.
Sarghitmish ruled Egypt beside his fellow Emir Shaykhu from 1351 CE. The Sultan was a child whom they deposed when he tried to get some power of his own. The reinstated him in 1356. At that date the pious and learned Sarghitmish built in Cairo a madrasa or Islamic college in the vicinity of the mosque of Ibn Tulun. The lamp was certainly executed for the madrasa.
It was sold for £ 5.1M from a lower estimate of £ 600K by Bonhams on November 12, 2024, lot 69 consigned by the descendants of a prime minister of Egypt, Nubar Pasha. Please watch the video shared by the auction house.
The death of Shaykhu killed by rebel Mamluks in 1357 brought too much power to Sarghitmish who was jailed by the Sultan in 1358 and died later in that year. The Sultan was killed in 1361 by an Emir.
A magnificent example 38.5 cm high provides through its transparent walls a verse of the Qur'an and the name, title and shield of its patron the powerful Mamluk Emir Sarghitmish. The verse states that 'Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth. His light is like a niche in which there is a lamp'. It has the typical form of a rounded angular body with flaring conical mouth, with six applied loop handles.
Sarghitmish ruled Egypt beside his fellow Emir Shaykhu from 1351 CE. The Sultan was a child whom they deposed when he tried to get some power of his own. The reinstated him in 1356. At that date the pious and learned Sarghitmish built in Cairo a madrasa or Islamic college in the vicinity of the mosque of Ibn Tulun. The lamp was certainly executed for the madrasa.
It was sold for £ 5.1M from a lower estimate of £ 600K by Bonhams on November 12, 2024, lot 69 consigned by the descendants of a prime minister of Egypt, Nubar Pasha. Please watch the video shared by the auction house.
The death of Shaykhu killed by rebel Mamluks in 1357 brought too much power to Sarghitmish who was jailed by the Sultan in 1358 and died later in that year. The Sultan was killed in 1361 by an Emir.
1489 Mamluk Qur'an
2019 SOLD for £ 3.7M by Christie's
The Mamluk period of Egypt paradoxically got its culmination with a former slave of Circassian origin named Qaitbay who reigned from 872 to 901 AH. A general appointed commander-in-chief by a transitory Sultan, Qaitbay had been the right man in the right place by his reputation for piety and by the immense wealth he had accumulated since his emancipation.
Throughout his long reign Qaitbay successfully resisted the ambitions of his powerful Ottoman neighbors. Despite his conservative reputation, he knew how to take diplomatic initiatives. The giraffe he sent to Florence was the only one of its kind to be seen in Europe between antiquity and 1826 CE.
He was a great builder. Like his predecessors, he endowed his religious institutions with inalienable donations identified as waqf in Islamic law. The most luxurious Korans of his reign are calligraphed in the very large format 107 x 80 cm named Baghdadi.
A complete Qur'an made of 311 folios on half-Baghdadi cream paper 68 x 45 cm was sold for £ 3.7M from a lower estimate of £ 500K by Christie's on May 2, 2019, lot 11. This Qur'an is not inscribed as a waqf and we do not know for which foundation it was created but it is luxuriously dedicated to Sultan Qaitbay. Its writing is large, making it comfortable to read aloud on a lectern.
This manuscript is signed with the personal and courtesy names of the scribe. The nickname, al-Maliki al-Ashrafi, attests to a double allegiance to an unidentified noble person, perhaps simply to indicate that he works in the royal studio.
It is dated 21 Jumada I 894 AH, corresponding to April 30, 1489 CE. Some details of the realization show that it was done in a urgency, with mistakes removed by a simple scraping of the thick paper and even with omissions in the illustration. This hurry could be related to health problems of the aging Sultan.
Throughout his long reign Qaitbay successfully resisted the ambitions of his powerful Ottoman neighbors. Despite his conservative reputation, he knew how to take diplomatic initiatives. The giraffe he sent to Florence was the only one of its kind to be seen in Europe between antiquity and 1826 CE.
He was a great builder. Like his predecessors, he endowed his religious institutions with inalienable donations identified as waqf in Islamic law. The most luxurious Korans of his reign are calligraphed in the very large format 107 x 80 cm named Baghdadi.
A complete Qur'an made of 311 folios on half-Baghdadi cream paper 68 x 45 cm was sold for £ 3.7M from a lower estimate of £ 500K by Christie's on May 2, 2019, lot 11. This Qur'an is not inscribed as a waqf and we do not know for which foundation it was created but it is luxuriously dedicated to Sultan Qaitbay. Its writing is large, making it comfortable to read aloud on a lectern.
This manuscript is signed with the personal and courtesy names of the scribe. The nickname, al-Maliki al-Ashrafi, attests to a double allegiance to an unidentified noble person, perhaps simply to indicate that he works in the royal studio.
It is dated 21 Jumada I 894 AH, corresponding to April 30, 1489 CE. Some details of the realization show that it was done in a urgency, with mistakes removed by a simple scraping of the thick paper and even with omissions in the illustration. This hurry could be related to health problems of the aging Sultan.
Ramadan marks the month in which the Qur'an was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad. This spectacular royal Mamluk Qur’an is over 500 years old. Created for the Sultan Qaytbay of Egypt, its gold chapter (sura) heading inscriptions are painted on a lapis lazuli ground. pic.twitter.com/jD26zoDvoe
— Christie's (@ChristiesInc) April 23, 2020
1939 Necklace of Queen Nazli
2015 SOLD for $ 4.3M by Sotheby's
A royal wedding is managed in two steps in 1939, in Cairo and Teheran: the son and heir of the Shah of Iran marries the sister of the King of Egypt. This union is political: the very recent Pahlavi dynasty seeks to assure its legitimacy in the Muslim world.
The Queen Mother Nazli is the widow of King Fuad. After being rarely present in the ceremonies during her 17 years with Fouad including 14 years as queen consort of Egypt, the still pretty 45-year-old mother of the bride is the queen of the wedding.
Queen Nazli is wearing a diamond tiara and necklace commissioned for the occasion to Van Cleef et Arpels.
The platinum necklace is composed of small round and beguette diamonds for a total weight of 217 carats. A spectacular radiant pattern directed to a sun adorns the upper chest. It is inseparable from the neck lacing in four rows of diamonds going on each side to a diamond knot.
The necklace of Queen Nazli was sold for $ 4.3M from a lower estimate of $ 3.6M for sale by Sotheby's on December 9, 2015, lot 506.
The photo of the queen with her two French jewels is shared by Wikimedia with an error in the identification of the ceremony that does not impair its belonging to the public domain.
The Queen Mother Nazli is the widow of King Fuad. After being rarely present in the ceremonies during her 17 years with Fouad including 14 years as queen consort of Egypt, the still pretty 45-year-old mother of the bride is the queen of the wedding.
Queen Nazli is wearing a diamond tiara and necklace commissioned for the occasion to Van Cleef et Arpels.
The platinum necklace is composed of small round and beguette diamonds for a total weight of 217 carats. A spectacular radiant pattern directed to a sun adorns the upper chest. It is inseparable from the neck lacing in four rows of diamonds going on each side to a diamond knot.
The necklace of Queen Nazli was sold for $ 4.3M from a lower estimate of $ 3.6M for sale by Sotheby's on December 9, 2015, lot 506.
The photo of the queen with her two French jewels is shared by Wikimedia with an error in the identification of the ceremony that does not impair its belonging to the public domain.
