16th Century

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LEONARDO DA VINCI

1
1500 Salvator Mundi
2017 SOLD for $ 450M by Christie's

The Salvator Mundi painted by Leonardo was known in workshop's copies but the original was considered lost. The meticulous inspection made by the experts with modern techniques has just brought one of these paintings to the rank of original with undeniable arguments.

The picture shows Christ holding the orb of the world in his left hand and blessing with the raised fingers of his right hand. The mystical message without the divine attribute of the halo competes with the holy shrouds recognized as authentic at his time while adding attitude and gesture. The orb that prophesies the rescue of the world is a reflective crystal ball through which the viewer perceives the palm of the hand.

This painting had belonged to King Charles I of England. It was probably hanging in the private apartments of Queen Henriette who was born in the French royal family. Its previous whereabouts are unknown. A possible hypothesis is a French royal order during the Italian wars. King Louis XII was so impressed by the Last Supper that he wanted to take the wall to France.

The analyzes provided a lot of information on the realization and history of this painting. The perfection of the expression is concentrated in the lips and the gaze, anticipating the Mona Lisa. The mouth was drawn by the technique of pierced drawing used by other great masters of that time including Raphael and Andrea del Sarto. One of the eyes was softened by a spread of color pushed by the wrist of the artist.

Leonardo cared little for the supporting materials. The conservation woes of the Last Supper are famous. The original panel of Salvator Mundi was early split because of a knot in the wood. The accident caused awkward repainting on the face. Anonymous owners then extended these repaints to the point that only peripheral regions including the hands were still visible in their original quality.

All of that has been conscientiously repaired. Fortunately the sfumato remained in very good condition under the disagreeable layers that were removed. This signature Leonardo technique makes it possible to compare the Salvator Mundi with the Mona Lisa which is the culmination of his art. The perfectionist preparation of his paintings could last several years. A date around 1500 is plausible for the Salvator Mundi.

Christ the savior of the world by Leonardo, oil on panel 66 x 46 cm, was sold for $ 450M by Christie's on November 15, 2017, lot 9 B. Please watch the video shared by the auction house.​​

​Responses by Grok :
​
  • The $450M sale of Leonardo da Vinci's Salvator Mundi in 2017 at Christie's set a record as the most expensive artwork ever auctioned, though some art historians, like Frank Zöllner, question its attribution due to extensive restoration obscuring its original quality.
  • Rediscovered in 2005 and authenticated in 2011, the painting's journey from a $45 misattribution in 1958 to a Leonardo masterpiece highlights the evolving expertise of art scholars, supported by evidence like preparatory drawings at Windsor Castle.
  • The debate over its authenticity challenges the art market's reliance on high-profile sales, with studies suggesting over 20 copies exist, raising questions about the uniqueness and value of the restored version.
​Quote
​Christie's @ChristiesInc Nov 16, 2017
Leonardo da Vinci's masterpiece Salvator Mundi achieves $450,312,500, a #worldauctionrecord for any work of art sold at auction.
​
  • The X post by Christie's highlights the record-breaking $450.3 million sale of Leonardo da Vinci's Salvator Mundi in 2017, a painting once sold for just $45 in 1958, revealing a dramatic shift in its perceived value driven by evolving art authentication debates.
  • Recent studies, including analysis by the Prado Museum's Ana Gonzalez Mozo in 2021, suggest Leonardo may not have painted Salvator Mundi himself, challenging its attribution and sparking controversy over whether it’s an original or a workshop copy, supported by historical inventories linking it to his pupil Salaì.
  • The sale’s buyer, Prince Badr bin Abdullah Al Saud, was later linked to a complex art market scandal involving Yves Bouvier, with lawsuits alleging a $380 million markup, as reported in 2018, raising questions about transparency in high-stakes auctions.
Asking Grok to compare with Mona Lisa :

Comparison: Salvator Mundi (Leonardo da Vinci, sold Christie’s 2017) vs. Mona Lisa (Leonardo da Vinci)
Salvator Mundi (c. 1499–1510)
Mona Lisa (c. 1503–1519)
Subject
Salvator Mundi : Christ as Savior of the World (Salvator Mundi), blessing with right hand, holding crystal orb
Mona Lisa : Portrait of Lisa Gherardini, wife of Francesco del Giocondo
Iconography
Salvator Mundi : Religious (Christ Pantocrator type), highly symbolic (orb = universe/crystal purity)
Mona Lisa : Secular portrait, though with enigmatic psychological depth
Auction / Ownership
Salvator Mundi : Sold at Christie’s New York, 15 Nov 2017, lot 9B for $450.3 million (highest price ever for any work of art at auction). Bought by Saudi crown prince Mohammed bin Salman (effectively for the Louvre Abu Dhabi, on loan since 2018)
Mona Lisa : In the Louvre since 1797 (French state property). Priceless, effectively unsellable
Condition & Authenticity
Salvator Mundi : Heavily damaged and restored multiple times (overpainted, thinned panel, extensive repainting especially in face and hair). Authenticity accepted by most (but not all) scholars after 2005–2011 restoration. Some prominent experts (e.g. Carmen Bambach, Michael Daley) still doubt full Leonardo authorship or consider it a workshop piece heavily retouched by him.
Mona Lisa : Exceptionally well-preserved for a 500-year-old poplar panel. Universally accepted as entirely by Leonardo’s hand
Size
Salvator Mundi : 65.7 × 45.7 cm (25⅞ × 18 in)
Mona Lisa : 77 × 53 cm (30 × 21 in)
Support
Salvator Mundi : Walnut panel
Mona Lisa : Poplar panel
Technique
Salvator Mundi : Oil (with some tempera?), heavy use of sfumato, very fine brushwork in final layers
Mona Lisa : Oil, extreme sfumato, almost invisible brushstrokes, pentimenti visible in infrared
Provenance
Salvator Mundi : English royal collection (Charles I), later lost, rediscovered 1900 in very poor state, sold 1958 for £45 as “follower of Leonardo”, restored 2005–2011, re-attributed
Mona Lisa : Continuously documented since François I bought it from Leonardo c. 1518
Current locationO
Salvator Mundi : Officially owned by Ministry of Culture of Saudi Arabia; stored in Geneva or Saudi Arabia (not publicly exhibited since September 2018 cancelled Louvre Abu Dhabi show)
Mona Lisa : Louvre, Paris (permanent display in Salle des États)
Cultural status
Salvatot Mundi : Most expensive painting ever sold; controversial because of condition, restoration, and price
Mona Lisa : The single most famous painting in the world; ultimate icon of Renaissance art
Artistic innovations visible
Salvator Mundi : Transparent crystal orb with attempted (but optically imperfect) refraction; extremely delicate sfumato in the face; soft curling hair
Mona Lisa : Revolutionary atmospheric perspective, psychological ambiguity, “smile”, subtle modeling of flesh with no hard lines
Restoration controversies
Salvator Mundi : 2005–2011 restoration by Dianne Dwyer Modestini removed heavy overpaint but added significant retouching (especially blessing hand and hair). Critics say the face is now largely 21st-century paint
Mona Lisa : 19th and early 20th-century varnishes removed; very conservative modern treatments
Scholarly consensus
Salvator Mundi : Accepted as autograph Leonardo by the majority since the 2011 National Gallery exhibition, but a vocal minority still considers it workshop with Leonardo interventions
​Mona Lisa : 100 % consensus as fully autograph
Key Similarities
  • Both are undisputed (or almost undisputed) works by Leonardo da Vinci from roughly the same late period (c. 1500–1515).
  • Both use extreme sfumato and soft modeling with almost invisible transitions.
  • Both were painted in oil (unusual in Italy at the time).
  • Both have enigmatic, slightly melancholic expressions.
  • Both have suffered damage and restoration, though to vastly different degrees.
Key Differences in a Nutshell
  • Purpose: religious icon vs. private secular portrait
  • Condition: one is among the best-preserved Renaissance paintings, the other among the most damaged and heavily restored
  • Market value: one is literally priceless and belongs to France; the other is the only Old Master ever to cross $400 million
  • Public visibility: Mona Lisa is seen by 30,000 people a day behind bulletproof glass; Salvator Mundi has essentially disappeared from public view since 2018
  • Consensus: Mona Lisa is the gold standard of Leonardo’s genius; Salvator Mundi remains the most debated and polarizing Leonardo in existence.
In short: the Mona Lisa is the universally acknowledged masterpiece; the Salvator Mundi is the miraculous (and controversial) survivor that became the most expensive painting in history.

2
1510 The Codex Leicester
1994 SOLD for $ 31M by Christie's

From 1475 Leonardo da Vinci recorded everyday all his ideas about the nature of the world in its whole variety, in the form of notes in ancient Italian language illustrated with sketches. In this polygraphic bulimia, he accumulated about 13,000 pages, on double-sided sheets folded in half.

Leonardo is neither a scientist nor an engineer in the modern meaning of these terms. He does not waste his time analyzing the consequences of his theories or conceiving the realization of his inventions. In his swarming of ideas, he could be wonderfully right and naively wrong, and he was certainly unable to distinguish between these two extremes.

For this left-hander, the mirror writing is the way he has found so that his thinking is not slowed down by his hand. The use of numerous abbreviations, which makes these texts extremely difficult to decipher, is consistent with this hypothesis. We will never know how he desired exploiting such a unique mass of informations.

These writings were later assembled into notebooks, identified under the more technical term of codex. The Codex Leicester is the only one remaining in private hands. It was sold by Christie's for $ 5.1M on December 12, 1980 and for $ 31M on November 11, 1994. Between these two sales it was named the Codex Hammer. It was bought by Bill Gates at the last auction. The image is shared by Wikimedia.
​
The Codex Leicester is made up of 18 double sheets of parchment for a total of 72 pages 22 x 30 cm. It brings together his notes written around 1510 on the theme of the water movements. The author imagines that his ideas could be used for the design of bridges.

His observation on the presence of fossils in the mountains brings an explanation far ahead of his time : they were originally in a seabed which was raised by a geophysical phenomenon. This hypothesis is all the more remarkable since the monotheistic religions of his time do not question the creationism.

In the same notebook, he explains the luminosity of the Moon by the reflection of sunlight on its surface entirely covered with water.

​The Codex Leicester (also historically known as the Codex Hammer) is one of Leonardo da Vinci's most important surviving scientific notebooks. It consists of 72 pages (36 folded sheets) of handwritten notes and drawings, composed in mirror script (Leonardo's characteristic right-to-left writing). Dated primarily to around 1508–1510 (with some sections possibly earlier), it reflects his mature investigations into natural phenomena during his later years.
Content
The manuscript focuses on scientific observations and theories, primarily related to water, its movements, and its role in the natural world. Leonardo organizes his thoughts into thematic sections, blending empirical observation, experiments, philosophical speculation, and remarkable foresight.
​Key topics include:
  • The nature and motion of water — Leonardo explores how water flows in rivers, eddies, whirlpools, waves, and tides. He describes phenomena like turbulence, erosion, and the behavior of water in pipes or when striking surfaces—ideas that anticipate modern fluid dynamics.
  • Hydrology and geology — He discusses why fossils are found on mountains (attributing it to ancient seas rising and falling), river formation, the geological history of Earth, and processes like sedimentation and erosion.
  • Astronomy and cosmology — Sections address the "lunar problem" (why the moon appears illuminated even in its dark parts, correctly attributing it to Earthshine—sunlight reflected from Earth).
  • Light, optics, and related phenomena — Observations on reflection, refraction, and how water interacts with light.
  • Other elements — Brief notes on air, fire, earth, and the four classical elements, plus practical applications like canal engineering and water management.
The codex features hundreds of diagrams, sketches, and cross-sections—such as water currents, geological strata, and celestial bodies—drawn with Leonardo's precision. These visuals complement his text, demonstrating his method of using drawing as a tool for thinking and explaining complex ideas.Unlike his artistic masterpieces, this is a working notebook: dense, exploratory, and interdisciplinary, showcasing Leonardo's relentless curiosity about how the universe operates through natural laws rather than supernatural causes.
Sale at Christie's on November 11, 1994
The manuscript was auctioned by Christie's in New York on November 11, 1994, under the name Codex Hammer (from its previous owner, industrialist Armand Hammer, who acquired it in 1980). Bidding started at around $5.5 million and escalated rapidly amid intense interest.It sold for a hammer price of $28.5 million, plus buyer's premium, totaling $30,802,500 (approximately $65 million in today's dollars). This set records as:
  • The most expensive manuscript ever sold at auction at the time.
  • The highest price for any work by Leonardo da Vinci.
  • One of the priciest books or documents in history.
The buyer was Bill Gates, co-founder of Microsoft, who purchased it anonymously through a representative. Gates has since made portions digitally accessible and loaned it for public exhibitions worldwide.
Legacy
The Codex Leicester stands as a pinnacle of Leonardo's scientific legacy, illustrating his role as a pioneer of empirical science and the scientific method centuries before its formalization.
  • Scientific foresight — Many observations (e.g., on water flow, Earthshine, geological change) were remarkably accurate and prefigured later discoveries in hydrology, geology, and astronomy.
  • Interdisciplinary genius — It exemplifies Leonardo's fusion of art, science, and philosophy: precise drawings serve as both illustration and analytical tool.
  • Cultural impact — As the only major Leonardo manuscript in private hands, it symbolizes the enduring value of intellectual curiosity. Bill Gates has emphasized its relevance to modern innovation, often displaying it in museums (e.g., exhibitions at the British Library, Minneapolis Institute of Art, and others) to inspire new generations.
  • Preservation and access — Gates has supported digitization efforts, making high-resolution images and transcriptions available online (via platforms like the Gates Notes or museum sites), broadening scholarly and public access.
The codex remains a testament to Leonardo's belief that "nature is the source of all true knowledge," influencing fields from environmental science to creative problem-solving today.
Vinci - Hammer 2A

​1500-1510 The Man of Sorrows by Botticelli
2022 SOLD for $ 45M by Sotheby's

After the fall of the Medici, the Dominican friar Savonarola established a de facto religious dictature in Florence. The required purge from sins and vanities included bonfires of luxury objects including clothings and secular paintings.

Botticelli's art changed. The time of his signature theme of the Virgin of Tenderness was over. He possibly was not reluctant with the new trend. After the fall of the dictatorship in 1498, Botticelli's studio was sometimes used by his brother for secret meetings of Savonarola's sympathizers.

A mid length life size figure of Christ is typical of that new mood. Botticelli painted it in tempera and oil by canceling a Virgin of Tenderness on a panel 69 x 51 cm.

The main theme is a Man of Sorrows. The iconography of this specific piece goes far beyond up to a global representation of the Passion including Redemption and Resurrection.

The image is blending the human and the divine. The full frontal face has an expression of suffering temperated with a desire to confront and convince. The gaze goes straight to the viewer, just like Leonardo's Salvator Mundi and Dürer's self portrait made at that same period otherwise marked by the fear of a mid-millennium apocalypse.

The divine is represented by the bleeding wounds of the thorns and by the stigmata of the Crucifixion in the hands. The unprecedented move of this unique picture is the replacement of the halo by a circle of angels in grisaille that reluctantly display the instruments of his torture such as the ladder, the scourge and the lance.

There is no similar example known in Christian iconography. We will never know whether the master executed it for his own salvation or for proposing a new theme which still had no follow when he died in 1510.

The painting surfaced in the mid 19th century in a family of famous English actors and was authenticated as an autograph work by Botticelli when it was sold at Sotheby's in 1963. Further studies are now confirming that prestigious attribution. It was sold for $ 45M on January 27, 2022 by Sotheby's, lot 14. Please watch the video shared by the auction house.
Compare The Man of Sorrows by Botticelli (ca 1500-1510, sold on January 27, 2022 by Sotheby's, lot 14) with Salvator Mundi by Leonardo da Vinci.
Overview
Both The Man of Sorrows by Sandro Botticelli (c. 1500–1510, tempera and oil on panel, sold for $45.4 million at Sotheby's in 2022) and Salvator Mundi by Leonardo da Vinci (c. 1500, oil on walnut panel, sold for $450.3 million in 2017) are late-period depictions of Christ as a half-length frontal figure, created around the same time during a period of religious intensity in Renaissance Italy. They share a stark, devotional format but differ profoundly in iconography, emotional tone, style, and artistic intent.
Iconography
Botticelli : Christ as the suffering "Man of Sorrows" (Imago Pietatis tradition): crown of thorns, bound hands/wrists, wounds visible, surrounded by angels holding Arma Christi (instruments of the Passion: cross, whip, lance, etc.). Emphasizes humiliation and sacrifice.
Leinardo : Christ as "Savior of the World": blessing gesture with right hand, holding transparent crystal orb (symbolizing the cosmos) in left. Emphasizes divinity, kingship, and salvation.
Pose & Gaze
Botticelli : Nearly frontal but slightly asymmetrical (tilted head, uneven eyes/mouth/nose for a human, "photographed" feel). Direct, beseeching gaze that engages the viewer personally, conveying suffering and quiet acceptance.
Leonardo : Strictly frontal and symmetrical, rigid like a Byzantine icon or the Veil of Veronica. Serene, timeless, ethereal gaze.
Emotional Tone
Botticelli : Intense humanity and pathos: somber, introspective, spiritual anguish influenced by Savonarola's preaching. Focus on physical/emotional suffering with psychological depth.
Leonardo : Divine serenity and transcendence: calm, otherworldly authority. Highlights Christ's godlike power over the world.
Style & Technique
Botticelli : Linear grace typical of Botticelli (sharp contours, elegant lines), even in late somber phase. Tempera/oil on panel; dark background; angels form a dynamic "halo." Some critics note awkward hands or stereotypical angels.
Leonado : Masterful sfumato (soft, smoky blending without harsh lines) for ethereal luminosity and depth. Oil on panel; subtle modeling of flesh, curls, and robes; innovative rendering of light/refraction in orb.
Composition
Botticelli : Dramatic close-up with Passion symbols integrated (angels arrayed around head). Underlying pentimento reveals reused panel from abandoned Madonna and Child.
Leonardo : Balanced, monumental simplicity; transparent robes and orb add intellectual/scientific layers (orb shows Leonardo's optical studies, though not fully realistic refraction).
Context & Period
Botticelli : Late Botticelli: shift to religious intensity post-Savonarola; visionary spirituality over earlier humanistic beauty.
Leonardo : Late Leonardo: blend of religious icon and scientific observation; possibly commissioned for French royalty.
Condition & Attribution
Botticelli : Well-preserved; reattributed to Botticelli himself in 2009 (previously workshop).
Leonardo : Heavily restored; attribution debated (some see studio involvement due to damage and inconsistencies).
Similarities
  • Both are rare late works by Florentine masters, painted c. 1500 amid millennial anxieties and religious fervor.
  • Frontal, bust-length portraits of Christ for private devotion, evoking direct spiritual confrontation.
  • Stark backgrounds enhance psychological intensity and modernity.
  • Both fetched record prices as rediscovered/rediscovered masterpieces, highlighting market fascination with Renaissance Christs.
Differences Summary
Botticelli's painting is a visceral meditation on human suffering and redemption through pain, rooted in medieval Passion imagery but infused with personal empathy. Leonardo's is an intellectual vision of divine majesty and cosmic order, showcasing innovative technique and serene detachment. While Botticelli humanizes Christ's torment, Leonardo elevates his transcendence—making them complementary yet contrasting expressions of Renaissance faith around 1500.

RAPHAEL
​Intro

Compare the Study for the Transfiguration by Raphael (ca 1520, sold by Sotheby's on December 5, 2012) with the Muse (ca 1508-1511, sold by Christie's on December 8, 2009).

Overview
Both works are highly finished black chalk drawings by Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio, 1483–1520), representing rare "auxiliary cartoons"—life-size or near-life-size studies of heads created late in the artistic process to transfer directly to major commissions in the Vatican. These are among the finest examples of Raphael's draughtsmanship, showcasing his mastery of volume, light, and emotional expression through subtle chalk modeling. They achieved record-breaking prices at auction, reflecting their exceptional quality and rarity (only a handful of comparable Raphael head studies have appeared on the market in modern times).
Key Details
Common Title
Apostle : Head of a Young Apostle
Muse : Head of a Muse
Date
Apostle : ca. 1519–1520
​Muse : ca. 1508–1511
Related Work
Apostle : Final painting: Transfiguration (Vatican Museums; Raphael's unfinished last masterpiece, combining the Transfiguration of Christ with the healing of a possessed boy)
Muse : Fresco: Parnassus (Stanza della Segnatura, Vatican; depicting Apollo and the Muses on Mount Parnassus)
Subject
Apostle : Head of a bearded young apostle (figure at far left in lower group of the painting, gazing upward in awe)
Muse : Head of a female Muse (third Muse to the right of Apollo in the fresco, idealized classical beauty)
Medium & Technique
Apostle : Black chalk; highly finished with subtle shading for dramatic light effects and emotional intensity
Muse : Black chalk over pounce marks (pricked dots for transfer) and traces of stylus; finely modeled face with softer, more ethereal rendering
Size (approx.)
Apostle : 38 × 28 cm (life-size auxiliary cartoon)
Muse : 31 × 22 cm
Provenance Highlight
Apostle : From the Devonshire Collection at Chatsworth (acquired ca. 1720s)
Muse : Passed through collections including Sir Thomas Lawrence and King William II of Holland
Auction Price
Apostle : £29.7 million (approx. $47.8 million)
Muse : £29.2 million (approx. $47.9 million)
Significance
Apostle : Captures late Raphael's innovative, proto-Baroque drama and psychological depth; one of six surviving auxiliary cartoons for the Transfiguration
​Muse : Represents high Renaissance ideal beauty and harmony; direct study for Vatican Stanze frescoes executed alongside Michelangelo's Sistine Ceiling
Stylistic and Artistic Comparison
  • Period in Raphael's Career: The Muse belongs to Raphael's early Roman phase (high Renaissance peak, influenced by classical antiquity and contemporaries like Michelangelo), emphasizing balanced composition, serene idealism, and graceful forms. The Apostle reflects his mature late style—more dynamic, emotionally charged, and anticipatory of Baroque intensity, with stronger chiaroscuro (light-dark contrast) to convey divine revelation and human awe.
  • Expression and Mood: The Muse is contemplative and idealized, with soft, luminous features evoking poetic inspiration and classical poise. The Apostle is intense and upward-gazing, conveying wonder and spiritual ecstasy amid the dramatic narrative of the Transfiguration.
  • Technical Mastery: Both demonstrate Raphael's unparalleled use of black chalk for nuanced tonal gradients and sculptural volume. The Muse shows finer, more delicate finishing on the face contrasting with sketchier areas; the Apostle employs bolder modeling for dramatic lighting, highlighting his evolving exploration of light and emotion.
  • Function: Both are preparatory "auxiliary cartoons" for precise transfer (via pouncing or tracing) to the final work, allowing Raphael to perfect key facial details independently.
These drawings exemplify why Raphael is often called the greatest draughtsman in Western art: they blend technical brilliance with profound humanism.

1
​​1508-1511 Muse
2009 SOLD for £ 29M by Christie's

The last twelve years of the short life of Raphael, from 1508 to 1520, marked an unprecedented success in the history of Western art.

Working directly for popes, cardinals and the powerful Medici family, Raphael manages a workshop of fifty artists whose production is prolific, but he himself designs the artworks, performs the preparation and executes the most important paintings.

The fashion of the time is for large-size frescoes and altar paintings prepared by innumerable drawings. Once the artist is satisfied with the composition, he pierces the latest drawings to transfer the lines into the final work.

His works were the subject of preparatory drawings very sharp, detailed and contrasted, at the exact size he wanted for the final paintng.

A black chalk drawing 30.5 x 22.2 cm was sold for £ 29M from a lower estimate of £ 12M by Christie's on December 8, 2009.

This pretty young woman head with flying hair in full frame is a preparation for a character of a Muse. It still have the perforations made by the artist to project the outline through the paper on the frescoes of the Vatican, executed between 1508 and 1511.

2
1518 Lorenzo II de' Medici
2007 SOLD for £ 18.5M by Christie's​

Since 1513 the head of the Medici family has become pope under the name of Leo X. Like most popes of this period, he keenly supports his family. After the death of his brother Giuliano in 1516, the hopes of the Medici to preserve the dynasty are transferred to their 24-year-old nephew Lorenzo II. The young prince is named Duke of Urbino, with the constraint of having to take over that duchy from the Della Rovere family.

Lorenzo must therefore be married. The pope promotes a French alliance and the choice falls on Madeleine de la Tour d'Auvergne, a cousin of King François I, in 1517. This marriage was political and the future newlyweds had obviously never met. Portraits will be exchanged during the preparation of this union.

The portrait of Lorenzo was entrusted at the beginning of 1518 to Raphael, a native of Urbino. The matter is urgent. The artist chooses the oil on canvas, which allows a faster execution than the wooden panel. The prince is seen in three quarter length, slightly turned to his right, the gaze directed towards the spectator. He is sumptuously dressed in brocade, velvet and fur. He holds in his hand a gold box supposedly decorated with a miniature portrait of his future wife.

This commission is of great political importance and there is no doubt that this painting is autograph by Raphael. The portrait of Lorenzo reached Paris in March in a convoy of gifts carried by 36 horses. The reciprocal portrait of Madeleine had arrived in Florence in the previous month. The marriage is celebrated on May 2 at the Château d'Amboise.

The original autograph painting, 97 x 78 cm, authenticated by modifications revealed by infrared photography, was sold for £ 18.5M by Christie's on July 5, 2007, lot 91. The image is shared by Wikimedia.
​
The glory of this prince was overrated. He had not won the war against the Della Rovere. He died in 1519 of syphilis, possibly contracted during his wedding trip. Madeleine had died a few days before him, two weeks after the birth of their only daughter who will become the French queen Catherine de Médicis.
Portrait of Lorenzo di Medici

3
​1519-1520 Study for the Transfiguration
2012 SOLD for £ 29.7M by Sotheby's

On December 5, 2012, Sotheby's sold for £ 29.7M from a lower estimate of £ 10M a drawing by Raphael in black chalk, 38 x 28 cm, from the collection of the Dukes of Devonshire. Please watch the videos shared by the auction house.

This head of an apostle in meditation was made during the preparation of the Transfiguration, that huge oil on canvas, 405 x 278 cm, unfinished at the untimely death of the artist.

Completed by his studio, this monumental painting marks a turning point in Western art. The composition in two registers is bold. Above, Christ enters the light. The bright representation of the event is an iconographic challenge which anticipates Rembrandt.

Down on Earth, the apostles are attending a miracle by Christ, each one reacting in his own way. The care taken in the empathy between these men is announcing Mannerism and Baroque art.

The drawing for sale is not final and has not been pierced. This is a beautiful portrait of expression, with very nice thin line.

TITIAN
​Intro

Titian (Tiziano Vecellio, c. 1488–1576), the supreme master of the Venetian school, dominated 16th-century painting with his revolutionary use of colore (color and atmospheric blending over strict disegno/line), loose brushwork, rich oil technique, and sensual, luminous surfaces. Unlike the Florentine/Roman focus on heroic anatomy and intellectual disegno (exemplified by Michelangelo), Titian's style emphasized emotional expressiveness, naturalism, and the evocative power of light and texture—establishing Venice as a rival artistic center to Rome/Florence.Titian's career unfolded amid intense competition: for commissions from Venetian patricians, the Doge, churches, and international royalty (e.g., Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, King Philip II of Spain). Rivalry drove innovation in oil on canvas, personal signature styles, and ambitious mythological/religious works. Key rivalries included:
Primary Venetian Rivals: Tintoretto and Veronese
​The most direct and documented rivalries were within Venice itself, where Titian, Jacopo Tintoretto (1518/19–1594), and Paolo Veronese (1528–1588) formed a "triumvirate" whose overlapping careers (nearly four decades) sparked fierce competition, mutual influence, and critique. Exhibitions like "Titian, Tintoretto, Veronese: Rivals in Renaissance Venice" (MFA Boston 2009; Louvre) highlight how they vied for primacy through side-by-side commissions, stylistic responses, and one-upmanship.
  • Tintoretto: Aggressive, ambitious, and controversial; often seen as the most confrontational. He reportedly sought to combine Michelangelo's disegno with Titian's colore but emphasized speed (prestezza) and dramatic chiaroscuro. Tintoretto challenged Titian's dominance by undercutting prices, securing rapid commissions (e.g., Scuola di San Rocco cycle), and producing bold, theatrical works. Mutual dislike was evident—Tintoretto may have been Titian's brief pupil before breaking away; commissions often became attempts to outdo each other. Vasari criticized Tintoretto's "haphazard" vehemence, partly reflecting Titian's circle's view.
  • Veronese: Younger, elegant, and decorative; arrived in Venice in the 1550s, quickly gaining major commissions (e.g., Doge's Palace, churches). Some sources suggest Titian viewed him as a protégé or tool against Tintoretto, yet rivalry persisted—Veronese overshadowed others with grand, colorful narratives (e.g., The Feast in the House of Levi). After Titian's death (1576), Tintoretto and Veronese continued competing for another decade-plus.
These Venetian rivalries fostered technical advances (e.g., freer brushwork, expressive color) and defined the "Venetian style" as looser, more atmospheric than central Italian rigor.Rivalry with MichelangeloOften called one of history's greatest artistic rivalries (per recent scholarship like William E. Wallace's 2025 book Michelangelo & Titian: A Tale of Rivalry and Genius), this was more indirect and admiring than bitter—rooted in stylistic contrast and shared patrons.
  • They met only twice: Michelangelo in Venice (1529, fleeing Florence) and Titian in Rome (1545–46, painting Charles V's portrait).
  • Michelangelo (sculptor/painter of heroic, muscular forms and disegno) saw painting as secondary to sculpture; Titian embodied Venetian colore supremacy.
  • Influence flowed both ways: Titian absorbed Michelangelo's anatomy/power (e.g., muscular nudes); Michelangelo recalled Titian's color/looseness in late works (e.g., Last Judgment echoes). They shared patrons (e.g., papal/imperial circles) and challenged each other into old age.
  • Unlike Michelangelo's personal feuds (Leonardo, Raphael), this was respectful competition—mutual awareness without direct confrontation, yet profound (Titian's international success rivaled Michelangelo's Roman dominance).
Other Contemporaries and Influences
  • Raphael: Indirect rivalry via commissions and borrowings—Titian completed Bacchus and Ariadne (1520–23) after Raphael's death left it unfinished for Alfonso d'Este. Titian drew from Raphael's harmony but transformed it with Venetian sensuality.
  • Leonardo da Vinci and Giorgione (early mentor/rival): Titian built on Giorgione's poetic atmosphere and Leonardo's sfumato, but outlived and surpassed them in output and fame.
  • Broader context: Competition was economic (commissions) and aesthetic—Vasari noted rivalry's role in progress. Titian, as the longest-lived and most internationally acclaimed, often held primacy, but younger challengers pushed boundaries.
Titian's rivalries—fiercest in Venice, profound with Michelangelo—drove the Renaissance's evolution from Florentine intellectualism to Venetian sensuality, cementing his legacy as the era's greatest colorist and a master who turned competition into enduring innovation.

1
​1508-1510 ​The Rest on the Flight into Egypt
2024 SOLD for £ 17.6M by Christie's

A highly eclectic artist, Giorgione had a lasting influence in the Venetian school of painting. In his idyllic or pastoral scenes, he used nature as a setting that framed the narration. He used brilliant pigments that were imported by the city for the textiles and glass industries, and was influential in the latest style of his master Giovanni Bellini.

In the second half of the first decade, it is very difficult to distinguish the paintings by Giorgione from those by Tiziano Vecelli whose name will be latinized as Titian. Giorgione died in his mid 30s in a plague in Venice in 1510.

Early connoisseurs commented that Titian's contributions were superior to Giorgione's. A joint work is Giorgione's Venus sleeping in the nude, completed after his death by Titian and a close forerunner of Titian's Venus of Urbino.

No artist of that period could ignore the Christian scenes for his business. A panel 39 x 48 cm known as the Madonna Lochis from a previous owner, painted by Titian ca 1508-1510, features a Madonna and Child framed by verdant hills.

​From the same period an undated Rest on the Flight into Egypt by Titian features a family in an Italian bucolic landscape that has nothing to do with Egypt. The composition is centered on the well-lit young mother in a tender embrace with her naked baby whom she had just unclothed for taking a rest. Joseph is an aging man who listens from the shadow. The title is taken from the Gospel of Matthew.

This oil on canvas laid on panel 46 x 63 cm was highlighted at a choice place near the doorway in a kunstkammer painting of the archduke of Austria in the mid 17th century by Teniers in Brussels. It was sold for £ 17.6M by Christie's on July 2, 2024, lot 8. Please watch the video shared by the auction house. The image is shared by Wikimedia.

​Grok response :

Quote
Christie's @ChristiesInc Jul 2, 2024
#AuctionUpdate A work last auctioned by Christie's in 1878, #Titian's early masterpiece ‘The Rest on the Flight into Egypt’ realised £17,560,000, achieving a #WorldAuctionRecord for the artist: http://bit.ly/3L7zthh

  • The painting "The Rest on the Flight into Egypt" by Titian, auctioned for £17.56 million in 2024, was created when he was likely under 20, showcasing his early genius and influencing the Venetian Renaissance with its innovative "mood landscape" style, as noted in Christie’s historical analysis.
  • This artwork’s journey includes a dramatic theft from Longleat House and recovery by an art detective, reflecting its status as a coveted piece across centuries, owned by figures like Venetian merchants and European aristocrats, per Christie’s documentation.
  • The record-breaking sale challenges the art market’s undervaluation of early Renaissance works, with data from Artprice.com indicating a 15% annual growth in high-value Old Master auctions since 2020, suggesting a resurgence in demand for such masterpieces.

Giorgione (c. 1477/78–1510), the enigmatic Venetian painter whose career lasted barely a decade, exerted a profound and foundational influence on Titian (c. 1488/90–1576), shaping the course of Venetian Renaissance painting and establishing many hallmarks of the Venetian style.
​Giorgione—known for his poetic, atmospheric landscapes, deeply saturated yet soft colors, innovative use of oil technique for luminous effects, enigmatic subjects blending mythology/poetry with nature, and a shift toward mood over strict narrative—served as both mentor and direct artistic model for the young Titian. Early sources (notably Giorgio Vasari's Lives of the Artists) describe Titian as initially apprenticed to Giovanni Bellini but quickly shifting allegiance after observing Giorgione's method: he "drew closer to Giorgione’s [style], imitating his works so well... that his paintings were sometimes mistaken and attributed to Giorgione." Titian's early portraits and figures from around age 18–20 (e.g., the Barberigo family portrait) were so Giorgionesque in flesh tones, hair rendering, and overall lyricism that they required signatures to distinguish them.
Their relationship combined collaboration, close association (possibly as workshop partners or collaborators on projects like the lost Fondaco dei Tedeschi frescoes, unveiled c. 1508–09, which dazzled Venice and launched Titian), and eventual rivalry as Titian emerged as the dominant force.
Key Areas of Influence
  • Atmospheric landscape and mood: Giorgione pioneered integrating figures into poetic, dreamlike settings where nature evokes emotion (e.g., The Tempest, with its stormy sky and ambiguous figures). This "Giorgionesque" fusion of human presence and evocative environment deeply informed Titian's early and mature works, such as Sacred and Profane Love (c. 1514), which echoes The Tempest's enigmatic duality, or the lush, glowing backgrounds in Titian's mythologies.
  • Color and technique (colore): Giorgione's mastery of rich, blended oils—creating soft transitions, glowing flesh, and atmospheric depth—became the core of Venetian painting. Titian absorbed and amplified this, developing his signature loose brushwork, vibrant yet harmonious palettes, and sensuous surfaces that prioritized emotional/tactile effect over Florentine line (disegno).
  • Poetic/enigmatic subjects and pastoral themes: Giorgione's innovative, often mysterious narratives (blending classical mythology, Arcadian ideals, and sensuality) opened the door for Titian's mythological series. The reclining female nude in landscape—a genre Giorgione essentially invented—directly inspired Titian's masterpieces.
    • Sleeping Venus (c. 1508–10, Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden): Giorgione's final work, left unfinished at his death (likely from plague). Contemporary Marcantonio Michiel records Titian completed the landscape and possibly parts of the figure. This first major reclining nude in Western art set the prototype for Titian's Venus of Urbino (1534, Uffizi), which adapts the pose, sensuality, and pastoral setting but adds direct gaze, domestic interior, and bolder eroticism—transforming Giorgione's dreamy idealism into Titian's more assertive, worldly sensuality.
    • Pastoral Concert (c. 1509–10, Louvre): Attribution long debated (Giorgione, Titian, or collaboration); most modern scholars favor early Titian, but its Giorgionesque mood—two clothed men with two nudes in an idyllic landscape symbolizing poetry/music—reflects shared exploration of pastoral themes that Titian later expanded.
Broader Legacy
Giorgione's premature death left only a handful of firmly attributed works, yet his innovations—prioritizing atmosphere, color harmony, and poetic ambiguity over Florentine anatomical precision—became the foundation of Venetian Renaissance art. Titian, outliving him by over 65 years, absorbed these elements, surpassed his mentor in scale and international fame, and transmitted them to successors like Tintoretto and Veronese. Scholars often describe Giorgione as the "John the Baptist" or "Marlowe" to Titian's "messiah" or "Shakespeare"—a brilliant innovator whose brief output profoundly shaped a longer, more dominant career.
In essence, without Giorgione's revolutionary vision, Titian's mature style—sensual, luminous, and emotionally resonant—would have developed far differently, and the Venetian school's distinct identity (colore over disegno) might never have crystallized so powerfully.
Tiziano, riposo dalla fuga in egitto

2
1560 Sacra Conversazione
2011 SOLD for $ 17M by Sotheby's​

In the later Renaissance, it is difficult to imagine a more complete painter than Titian. His great mythological or religious scenes offer the full range of psychological expression from violence to peace.

At the end of his life, his creativity is much alive, but he has nothing more to prove to increase his fame. Painter of sensuality and characters, he became the painter of the passions.

Circa 1560, he painted A Sacra Conversazione, also known as the Mystical Marriage of St. Catherine. We really catch the intelligence being transferred between the Child Jesus, held by his mother, and Catherine of Alexandria. The Child is active and friendly, Catherine is serious and focused, the Madonna encourages the movement of Jesus. St Luke, standing, is carefully watching.

This large painting on canvas 128 x 170 cm was sold for $ 17M by Sotheby's on January 27, 2011. Please watch the video shared by the auction house. The image is shared by Wikimedia.

There is no doubt about the importance of this work. Already in the 1620s, it had the honor to draw the attention of Van Dyck, who made a sketch of it in a notebook now preserved at the British Museum.
Titian, Sacra Conversazione, The Madonna and Child with Saints Luke and Catherine of Alexandria

1529 Portrait of a Halberdier by Pontormo
1989 SOLD for $ 35 M by Christie's​​

Jacopo da Pontormo is developing a new pictorial style in Florence, emphasizing psychological expression and storytelling over realism. He is a forerunner of both mannerism and baroque art. A pupil of Andrea del Sarto, he is also a follower of Piero di Cosimo. He is a fresco and portrait painter.

The Portrait of a Halberdier is an oil (or oil and tempera) on panel transferred to canvas 95 x 73 cm. This arrogant young man with a smooth and beardless face who is bulging his chest to the limit does not look like an infantry soldier. He is too richly dressed : he is an aristocrat.

By its military theme, this image enters into the context of the siege of Florence by the imperial armies in 1529. This date is all the more plausible as it corresponds to the period of greatest creativity of Pontormo, who will soon cease to resist his mental disorders.

Under these conditions, the young man is probably Francesco Guardi, aged fifteen. The wearing of the halberd would be a pun associated with the function of guardian evoked by his patronym.

The Portrait of a Halberdier was sold for $ 35M by Christie's on May 31, 1989. It was purchased at this sale by the J. Paul Getty Museum. The image is shared by Wikimedia. Because of its great pictorial quality, experts want to recognize in this portrait a work that was specifically admired by Vasari.

​Grok thought :

Quote
Willie Chunderan @williechunderan Oct 13, 2024
RENAISSANCE ART AND ARCHITECTURE Vincent DeLuise THE MONUMENTALITY OF PONTORMO: The Halberdier I had the opportunity in summer 2021 to spend several hours in the splendor of cinquecento portraiture in the Medici court, in that spectacular Metropolitan Museum of Art blockbuster
  • Pontormo's "Portrait of a Halberdier" (c. 1530) exemplifies Mannerism through its elongated forms, like the subject's oversized left arm, ambiguous shadowy background suggesting a fortress, and refined garment textures that create optical tension.
  • The sitter's identity remains debated: Giorgio Vasari identified him as Francesco Guardi, a young noble during Florence's 1529 siege, while art historian Elizabeth Cropper argues for Cosimo de' Medici based on 1612 inventory evidence, highlighting the painting's symbolic depth.
  • Displayed prominently in the 2021 Metropolitan Museum exhibition "The Medici: Portraits and Politics," the work reflects Pontormo's role as court painter, pioneering elegant, reserved portraits for the Medici elite amid Renaissance-to-Mannerist transitions.

​Asking Grok to identify possible symbolic meanings of this painting.

Grok thought :

The Portrait of a Halberdier by Jacopo Pontormo, created around 1529–1530 or possibly later in the 1530s, features a young man in elaborate attire holding a halberd (a pole weapon combining a spear and battle-axe). The painting's symbolic elements are deeply tied to the turbulent political context of Florence during the late Renaissance, including the 1529–1530 Siege of Florence by imperial Spanish forces and the transition from republican to Medici ducal rule. Interpretations often hinge on the debated identity of the sitter—potentially Francesco Guardi (a republican defender), a young Cosimo I de' Medici (symbolizing Medici triumph), or others like Ercole Rangone—leading to ambivalent republican or monarchic readings. Below, I outline key symbolic meanings drawn from art historical analyses.
​The Halberd
This weapon symbolizes martial prowess and defense. In a republican interpretation (as Francesco Guardi), it represents the young Florentine militiamen's role in resisting the siege, where even teenagers patrolled and armed themselves to protect the republic against Medici-backed imperial forces. For a monarchic view (as Cosimo I), it underscores the consolidation of ducal military authority after victories like the Battle of Montemurlo in 1537.
The Medallion (Hat Badge or Cap Brooch)
The badge depicts Hercules wrestling or lifting Antaeus, a classical motif symbolizing strength, triumph over adversity, and heroic victory. Hercules was a patron emblem of Florence overall, but in Medici contexts, it allegorizes Cosimo's defeats of republican exiles (fuorusciti) like the Strozzi family, assimilating civic symbols into absolutist propaganda. In a republican lens, it evokes Florentine resistance to Medici control, echoing unexecuted works like Michelangelo's Hercules and Antaeus for Palazzo Vecchio. Its ambiguity makes it a versatile Renaissance reference to fortitude rather than a definitive identifier.
The Background Fortress or Bastion
The faint wall or fortification in the background symbolizes defensive resilience amid siege warfare. For Guardi, it may reference specific sites like San Miniato al Monte, tying into themes of property defense ("guardio del monte") and republican guardianship. In Cosimo's case, it claims authority over Florentine strongholds, reinforcing ducal power.
Clothing and Attire
The sitter's sumptuous, fashionable outfit—red cap, golden pin, sheathed sword, and elaborate uniform—symbolizes social status, youthful pomp, and the "splendid armament" of Florentine militia youths during the siege, as chronicled by historians like Benedetto Varchi and Jacopo Nardi. This attire reflects gendered social codes and generational tensions in the Last Florentine Republic, where young men faced pressures to embody idealized, heroic masculinity despite their inexperience.
Pose, Expression, and Overall Figure
The direct gaze, swaggering stance, and idealized features (large eyes, curly hair, smooth face) convey naive arrogance, psychological depth, and "bella gioventù" (beautiful youth), drawing from classical archetypes like Octavian Augustus or Saint George. This symbolizes poignant vulnerability amid heroism—a slim teenager posing as a confident guardian—highlighting the contrast between appearance and reality in times of political upheaval.
The painting's overarching symbolism embodies Florence's political ambivalence: republican ideals of liberty and defense versus Medici monarchic triumph, with elements adaptable to either narrative due to the era's cultural assimilation of symbols.
Pontormo (Jacopo Carucci) (Italian, Florentine) - Portrait of a Halberdier (Francesco Guardi?) - Google Art Project

1559-1566 Jiajing Fish Jar
​​2017 SOLD for HK$ 214M by Christie's

The palace bowls of the Chenghua emperor were fabulous by the quality of the porcelain and their early application of polychromy but the pieces were small and the drawings were naive. A period of inactivity begins because of court protests against the onerous taste of the leading concubine for such a luxury.

The progress of Jingdezhen porcelain is restarting with the Jiajing emperor, an art lover and an adept of Daoism. Becoming emperor at the age of 14 in 1522 CE, Jiajing retreated from politics in 1542 and reigned for 24 further years, obsessed by the search for immortality.

​Large pieces are made under his rule, using the bright color palette identified as wucai. Wucai means five enamels, five having here a meaning of plurality adjusted to the five elements.

The porcelain was first painted with the classical underglaze blue. The other colors were added over the glaze. Experts believe that three firings have been necessary. The fish jars display a golden orange of the carps specially developed under Jiajing, applying an iron red over an already fired yellow enamel. This onerous technique was not maintained afterwards.

This emperor liked to state that he was the fisherman of the heavenly pond. The pattern with fish swimming amidst aquatic plants enables a pleasing interweaving of the drawings on the walls of the jars and Jiajing himself promotes this theme by massive commissions. The details of the themes are related to homophonic rebuses bringing to the emperor the auspices that he so much enjoyed.

No record was found of imperial orders for Jiajing polychrome porcelains, leading to a terminus post quem ca 1559. All the fish jars share the same basic design.

A 46 cm high wucai guan shaped jar with its cover is one of the biggest pieces of that type. It is animated by carps of two different sizes. The suspension of the fish in water allows various attitudes. 

Pieces which are still with their original cover are very rare in private hands. This one was sold for HK $ 44M by Sotheby's on October 29, 2000, and for HK $ 214M by Christie's on November 27, 2017, lot 8006. Please watch the video shared by Christie's.

In the same technique and size as the example above, a pair of Jiajing fish jars with their original covers was sold for £ 9.6M by Sotheby's on November 6, 2024, lot 32. Please watch the video shared by the auction house. This pair has been treasured in the same German family for about a century. Another pair with covers, somewhat damaged, is kept at the Musée Guimet.