Decade 1620-1629
Except otherwise stated, all results include the premium.
See also : Ancient England Ancient painting Rembrandt Music in old painting Ancient sculpture Books 17th century books Literature India Islam Cartier
See also : Ancient England Ancient painting Rembrandt Music in old painting Ancient sculpture Books 17th century books Literature India Islam Cartier
1621 Danaë by Orazio Gentileschi
2016 SOLD for $ 30.5M by Sotheby's
Born in Pisa, Orazio Gentileschi begins his career in Rome. He does not follow the anti-mannerism of the Carracci nor the tenebrism of Caravaggio. His art is nevertheless modern for his time with beautiful contrasts and a pleasant naturalism.
In 1621, he is invited by the wealthy Genovese merchant Giovanni Antonio Sauli, son of a former Doge of that city, to work in his palazzo as a painter and as an artistic adviser. Gentileschi executes three monumental paintings on the theme of mystical love, an excuse for displaying sensual nudes.
Sublimating the religions, the artist chooses his stories in the Old Testament, Christian parables and Greek myths. Lot's daughters symbolize the expectation, Danae the annunciation and Magdalene the repentance. Success is immediate and in the practice of his time the artist himself will paint a few copies.
The three original paintings of the Palazzo Sauli have long remained in the descendance of the patron. Danae, oil on canvas 161 x 227 cm, was sold for $ 30.5M by Sotheby's on January 28, 2016, lot 41.
The princess lies on her unmade bed. She is nude excepted a veil of chastity. Cupid opens the curtains to let going the lightning of Jupiter in the form of a shower of golden coins and ribbons. The gesture of the young woman is peaceful and welcoming, with her arm raised in the same oblique direction as the movement of the fertilizing god disguised as gold.
Gentileschi had been too often described as a Caravaggian but his Danae is a masterpiece of late profane mannerism. The image is shared by Wikimedia.
The Sotheby's auction on January 28, 2016 (Master Paintings Evening Sale, lot 41) featured Danaë (c. 1621–1623), a large oil on canvas by Orazio Gentileschi (1563–1639). It was commissioned by Genoese nobleman Giovanni Antonio Sauli as part of a trio of sensual mythological and biblical scenes. The work sold for $30.5 million (including premium) to the J. Paul Getty Museum, setting a record for Orazio and marking one of the highest prices for a Baroque painting at auction.
This Danaë depicts the mythological princess reclining nude as Zeus descends as a shower of gold, rendered with dramatic Caravaggesque lighting, rich textures in fabrics and flesh, and elegant composition. It represents the pinnacle of Orazio's career during his productive Genoa period (after 1621), where influences from Rubens and Van Dyck helped him refine his luminous colorism and sensuality, moving beyond his earlier Caravaggio-inspired naturalism.
Artemisia Gentileschi (1593–c. 1656), Orazio's daughter, painted her own version of Danaë around 1612 (oil on copper, now in the Saint Louis Art Museum). This smaller, earlier work shows a reclining nude Danaë with a maidservant collecting gold coins, notable for its tactile rendering of textures (hair, fabrics, flesh, coins) and subtle emotional nuance—often interpreted as reflecting a female perspective on vulnerability or unwelcome advances, influenced by Artemisia's personal history.
Significance in Orazio Gentileschi's Career
This painting represents the apex of Orazio's mature style during his highly productive Genoa period (1621–1624). Commissioned in 1621 by the wealthy Genoese nobleman Giovanni Antonio Sauli for his palazzo, it formed part of a prestigious trio of large-scale works depicting sensual female figures: Danaë, Penitent Magdalene (private collection, New York), and Lot and His Daughters (also at the Getty since 1998). The Sauli commission was among the most important of Orazio's career, elevating his reputation and leading to further patronage from Genoese nobility, the Duke of Savoy, and eventually Marie de' Medici in France.
In Genoa—a vibrant artistic hub influenced by recent works by Rubens, Guido Reni, and soon Van Dyck—Orazio refined his style, moving beyond his earlier strict Caravaggesque naturalism (dramatic chiaroscuro and realism) toward a more luminous, colorful, and elegant manner infused with Tuscan lyricism. Danaë exemplifies this synthesis: the reclining nude figure of the mythological princess, bathed in a shower of gold from Zeus (with Cupid drawing back the curtain), combines tactile realism in flesh tones and textures with refined sensuality, opulent fabrics (silks, linens, metals), and subtle psychological grace. Unlike more overtly erotic versions (e.g., Titian's), Orazio's portrayal balances chastity and inevitability, avoiding vulgarity while achieving sumptuous splendor.
Art historians and contemporaries (e.g., 18th-century accounts) often singled out Danaë as the finest of the Sauli series. Its critical and market acclaim in 2016—described by Sotheby's as "one of the finest masterpieces of the Italian seventeenth century" and by the Getty as a work from "the apogee of his career"—underscores its status as a defining achievement, showcasing Orazio's evolution into one of the most elegant figures of the Italian Baroque.
Comparison: Orazio Gentileschi's Danaë (c. 1621–1623) vs. Titian's Danaë Series (1544–1560s)
Orazio Gentileschi's Danaë (now at the J. Paul Getty Museum) directly engages with the tradition established by Titian (Tiziano Vecellio), whose multiple versions of the subject—painted over two decades for patrons like Cardinal Alessandro Farnese and Philip II of Spain—pioneered the erotic mythological nude in Venetian Renaissance art. The most influential for Orazio was likely the first version (1544–1545, Museo di Capodimonte, Naples), which he may have seen in Rome at the Palazzo Farnese. Later Titian variants (e.g., Prado, Madrid; Apsley House, London; Hermitage, St. Petersburg) introduce changes like an elderly maid catching coins instead of Cupid.
Key Similarities
In 1621, he is invited by the wealthy Genovese merchant Giovanni Antonio Sauli, son of a former Doge of that city, to work in his palazzo as a painter and as an artistic adviser. Gentileschi executes three monumental paintings on the theme of mystical love, an excuse for displaying sensual nudes.
Sublimating the religions, the artist chooses his stories in the Old Testament, Christian parables and Greek myths. Lot's daughters symbolize the expectation, Danae the annunciation and Magdalene the repentance. Success is immediate and in the practice of his time the artist himself will paint a few copies.
The three original paintings of the Palazzo Sauli have long remained in the descendance of the patron. Danae, oil on canvas 161 x 227 cm, was sold for $ 30.5M by Sotheby's on January 28, 2016, lot 41.
The princess lies on her unmade bed. She is nude excepted a veil of chastity. Cupid opens the curtains to let going the lightning of Jupiter in the form of a shower of golden coins and ribbons. The gesture of the young woman is peaceful and welcoming, with her arm raised in the same oblique direction as the movement of the fertilizing god disguised as gold.
Gentileschi had been too often described as a Caravaggian but his Danae is a masterpiece of late profane mannerism. The image is shared by Wikimedia.
The Sotheby's auction on January 28, 2016 (Master Paintings Evening Sale, lot 41) featured Danaë (c. 1621–1623), a large oil on canvas by Orazio Gentileschi (1563–1639). It was commissioned by Genoese nobleman Giovanni Antonio Sauli as part of a trio of sensual mythological and biblical scenes. The work sold for $30.5 million (including premium) to the J. Paul Getty Museum, setting a record for Orazio and marking one of the highest prices for a Baroque painting at auction.
This Danaë depicts the mythological princess reclining nude as Zeus descends as a shower of gold, rendered with dramatic Caravaggesque lighting, rich textures in fabrics and flesh, and elegant composition. It represents the pinnacle of Orazio's career during his productive Genoa period (after 1621), where influences from Rubens and Van Dyck helped him refine his luminous colorism and sensuality, moving beyond his earlier Caravaggio-inspired naturalism.
Artemisia Gentileschi (1593–c. 1656), Orazio's daughter, painted her own version of Danaë around 1612 (oil on copper, now in the Saint Louis Art Museum). This smaller, earlier work shows a reclining nude Danaë with a maidservant collecting gold coins, notable for its tactile rendering of textures (hair, fabrics, flesh, coins) and subtle emotional nuance—often interpreted as reflecting a female perspective on vulnerability or unwelcome advances, influenced by Artemisia's personal history.
Significance in Orazio Gentileschi's Career
This painting represents the apex of Orazio's mature style during his highly productive Genoa period (1621–1624). Commissioned in 1621 by the wealthy Genoese nobleman Giovanni Antonio Sauli for his palazzo, it formed part of a prestigious trio of large-scale works depicting sensual female figures: Danaë, Penitent Magdalene (private collection, New York), and Lot and His Daughters (also at the Getty since 1998). The Sauli commission was among the most important of Orazio's career, elevating his reputation and leading to further patronage from Genoese nobility, the Duke of Savoy, and eventually Marie de' Medici in France.
In Genoa—a vibrant artistic hub influenced by recent works by Rubens, Guido Reni, and soon Van Dyck—Orazio refined his style, moving beyond his earlier strict Caravaggesque naturalism (dramatic chiaroscuro and realism) toward a more luminous, colorful, and elegant manner infused with Tuscan lyricism. Danaë exemplifies this synthesis: the reclining nude figure of the mythological princess, bathed in a shower of gold from Zeus (with Cupid drawing back the curtain), combines tactile realism in flesh tones and textures with refined sensuality, opulent fabrics (silks, linens, metals), and subtle psychological grace. Unlike more overtly erotic versions (e.g., Titian's), Orazio's portrayal balances chastity and inevitability, avoiding vulgarity while achieving sumptuous splendor.
Art historians and contemporaries (e.g., 18th-century accounts) often singled out Danaë as the finest of the Sauli series. Its critical and market acclaim in 2016—described by Sotheby's as "one of the finest masterpieces of the Italian seventeenth century" and by the Getty as a work from "the apogee of his career"—underscores its status as a defining achievement, showcasing Orazio's evolution into one of the most elegant figures of the Italian Baroque.
Comparison: Orazio Gentileschi's Danaë (c. 1621–1623) vs. Titian's Danaë Series (1544–1560s)
Orazio Gentileschi's Danaë (now at the J. Paul Getty Museum) directly engages with the tradition established by Titian (Tiziano Vecellio), whose multiple versions of the subject—painted over two decades for patrons like Cardinal Alessandro Farnese and Philip II of Spain—pioneered the erotic mythological nude in Venetian Renaissance art. The most influential for Orazio was likely the first version (1544–1545, Museo di Capodimonte, Naples), which he may have seen in Rome at the Palazzo Farnese. Later Titian variants (e.g., Prado, Madrid; Apsley House, London; Hermitage, St. Petersburg) introduce changes like an elderly maid catching coins instead of Cupid.
Key Similarities
- Subject and Composition: Both depict the mythological moment when Zeus, as a shower of golden coins/rain, impregnates the imprisoned princess Danaë. The reclining nude on a bed, with luxurious fabrics and dramatic lighting, draws from the same Ovidian source.
- Sensuality: The female body is central, rendered with masterful attention to flesh tones, textures (silks, linens, skin), and opulent details.
- Influence: Orazio explicitly references High Renaissance precedents like Titian (and Correggio), adapting the theme to showcase his skill in drapery and tactile realism.
1623 Shakespeare's First Folio
2020 SOLD for $ 10M by Christie's
Shakespeare : Meaning, inspiration and Influence of his work on the advancement of Literature, Drama and overall on Civilization and Culture. Psychological evaluation. How did he promote his own work ? Detail the posthumous project and edition of his First Folio by outstanding followers.
William Shakespeare: An Overview
William Shakespeare (1564–1616), often hailed as the Bard of Avon, was an English playwright, poet, and actor whose works have profoundly shaped human expression and thought. His canon includes 39 plays, 154 sonnets, and two long narrative poems, produced during the Elizabethan and Jacobean eras. Shakespeare's inspiration drew from classical sources like Greek and Roman drama, contemporary events, folklore, and the human condition itself, blending tragedy, comedy, history, and romance to explore universal themes such as love, power, ambition, jealousy, and mortality.
Meaning and Inspiration in Shakespeare's Works
The core meaning of Shakespeare's oeuvre lies in its deep humanism: a Renaissance synthesis of Christianity, classicism, and inquiry into the self. He portrayed characters as complex beings driven by internal conflicts, societal pressures, and fate, emphasizing that human nature is neither wholly good nor evil but a blend subjected to scrutiny. His inspiration stemmed from diverse sources, including ancient texts (e.g., Ovid for Venus and Adonis, Plutarch for Julius Caesar), English history chronicles like Holinshed's, and the vibrant London theater scene. Shakespeare fused native English folk traditions with classical structures, innovating plot, language, and characterization to create timeless narratives. For instance, his tragedies often draw from Senecan revenge plays but infuse them with psychological depth, while comedies borrow from Italian commedia dell'arte yet add witty wordplay and social commentary.
Influence on Literature, Drama, Civilization, and Culture
Shakespeare's impact on literature is immeasurable; he coined or popularized around 1,700 words (e.g., "assassination," "bedazzled," "swagger") and phrases like "star-crossed lovers" that permeate modern English. He pioneered tropes such as tragic flaws, soliloquies for inner monologue, and genre-blending, influencing writers from Dickens to Faulkner and Stoppard. In drama, he elevated theater from elite entertainment to a populist art form, building the Globe Theatre and performing for diverse audiences, which democratized storytelling and inspired global stage traditions.
On civilization and culture, Shakespeare embodies Western values—adherence to tradition mixed with critical inquiry—while transcending them, with his works studied and performed in non-Western contexts like China and India. His plays have shaped moral and spiritual visions, influencing politics (e.g., leadership in Henry V), psychology, law, and popular culture, from films (The Lion King as Hamlet) to music and advertising. His brand persists in empire-building, education, and commerce, making him a cultural export that outlasted British colonialism. Globally, he remains the most performed playwright, fostering empathy and debate on human experiences.
Psychological Evaluation of Shakespeare's Works
Shakespeare's plays serve as early psychological case studies, revealing characters' hidden thoughts, emotions, and motivations through dialogue and soliloquies. Researchers have identified a unique "psychological signature" in his writing, marked by categorical thinking (analytic, formal) and thematic depth in emotions, family, and perception. Freud famously analyzed Hamlet as exhibiting an Oedipus complex—unresolved maternal attachment leading to paralysis—while Othello depicts jealousy escalating to rage, and Macbeth explores obsessive-compulsive guilt and ambition's toll. Characters like Richard III embody psychopathy, driven by hatred and trauma, analyzed through Freudian and Lacanian lenses for unconscious desires and inner conflicts. Soliloquies expose the psyche's gaps and silences, showing how intuition overrides reason, prefiguring modern psychology's dual-process theory. Plays like King Lear depict mental illness (e.g., madness from grief), offering insights into depression, post-traumatic stress, and human resilience. Overall, Shakespeare's intuitive grasp of the mind—nature vs. nurture, conscious vs. unconscious—has informed psychoanalysis and continues to expand understandings of mental health.
How Shakespeare Promoted His Own Work
Shakespeare promoted his work through performance and patronage rather than modern marketing. In 1594, he joined the Lord Chamberlain's Men (later King's Men), a prominent acting troupe that performed at court and built the Globe Theatre in 1599, drawing diverse crowds and ensuring wide exposure. His narrative poems, like Venus and Adonis (1593), became overnight best-sellers, reprinted multiple times and alluded to widely for their erotic appeal. Plays were not published by him personally—he focused on scripts for the stage—but some appeared in quarto editions during his life, boosting fame (e.g., Henry IV, Part 1 went through multiple printings). He cultivated relationships with patrons like the Earl of Southampton, dedicating works to them for financial support and prestige. By 1599, anecdotes circulated about him, and his talent drew crowds, making him a celebrity in London's theater scene. Word-of-mouth and repeat performances amplified his reach, with plays like Hamlet gaining rapid popularity through public acclaim.
The Posthumous Project: The First Folio and Its Editors
Seven years after Shakespeare's death in 1616, his colleagues compiled and published Mr. William Shakespeares Comedies, Histories, & Tragedies—known as the First Folio—in 1623, preserving 36 plays, 18 of which (including Macbeth, The Tempest, and Twelfth Night) appeared in print for the first time, saving them from potential loss. This groundbreaking anthology, the first of its kind for dramatic works, was a tribute orchestrated by outstanding followers: actors John Heminges and Henry Condell, who edited and compiled from scripts, drafts, and promptbooks. Printed in folio format by William and Isaac Jaggard (with Edward Blount as a key bookseller), it included commendatory verses by Ben Jonson and others, dedicating it to the Earls of Pembroke and Montgomery.
Around 750 copies were produced between February 1622 and November 1623, entered in the Stationers' Register on November 8, 1623. Heminges and Condell urged readers to spread the word, framing it as a memorial to Shakespeare's "living art." The project reflected political undercurrents, like pro-Spanish alliances via contributors' ties, and solidified his legacy amid the "deafening silence" following his death—no immediate eulogies emerged until this volume. Today, about 233 copies survive, underscoring its enduring cultural value.
William Shakespeare: An Overview
William Shakespeare (1564–1616), often hailed as the Bard of Avon, was an English playwright, poet, and actor whose works have profoundly shaped human expression and thought. His canon includes 39 plays, 154 sonnets, and two long narrative poems, produced during the Elizabethan and Jacobean eras. Shakespeare's inspiration drew from classical sources like Greek and Roman drama, contemporary events, folklore, and the human condition itself, blending tragedy, comedy, history, and romance to explore universal themes such as love, power, ambition, jealousy, and mortality.
Meaning and Inspiration in Shakespeare's Works
The core meaning of Shakespeare's oeuvre lies in its deep humanism: a Renaissance synthesis of Christianity, classicism, and inquiry into the self. He portrayed characters as complex beings driven by internal conflicts, societal pressures, and fate, emphasizing that human nature is neither wholly good nor evil but a blend subjected to scrutiny. His inspiration stemmed from diverse sources, including ancient texts (e.g., Ovid for Venus and Adonis, Plutarch for Julius Caesar), English history chronicles like Holinshed's, and the vibrant London theater scene. Shakespeare fused native English folk traditions with classical structures, innovating plot, language, and characterization to create timeless narratives. For instance, his tragedies often draw from Senecan revenge plays but infuse them with psychological depth, while comedies borrow from Italian commedia dell'arte yet add witty wordplay and social commentary.
Influence on Literature, Drama, Civilization, and Culture
Shakespeare's impact on literature is immeasurable; he coined or popularized around 1,700 words (e.g., "assassination," "bedazzled," "swagger") and phrases like "star-crossed lovers" that permeate modern English. He pioneered tropes such as tragic flaws, soliloquies for inner monologue, and genre-blending, influencing writers from Dickens to Faulkner and Stoppard. In drama, he elevated theater from elite entertainment to a populist art form, building the Globe Theatre and performing for diverse audiences, which democratized storytelling and inspired global stage traditions.
On civilization and culture, Shakespeare embodies Western values—adherence to tradition mixed with critical inquiry—while transcending them, with his works studied and performed in non-Western contexts like China and India. His plays have shaped moral and spiritual visions, influencing politics (e.g., leadership in Henry V), psychology, law, and popular culture, from films (The Lion King as Hamlet) to music and advertising. His brand persists in empire-building, education, and commerce, making him a cultural export that outlasted British colonialism. Globally, he remains the most performed playwright, fostering empathy and debate on human experiences.
Psychological Evaluation of Shakespeare's Works
Shakespeare's plays serve as early psychological case studies, revealing characters' hidden thoughts, emotions, and motivations through dialogue and soliloquies. Researchers have identified a unique "psychological signature" in his writing, marked by categorical thinking (analytic, formal) and thematic depth in emotions, family, and perception. Freud famously analyzed Hamlet as exhibiting an Oedipus complex—unresolved maternal attachment leading to paralysis—while Othello depicts jealousy escalating to rage, and Macbeth explores obsessive-compulsive guilt and ambition's toll. Characters like Richard III embody psychopathy, driven by hatred and trauma, analyzed through Freudian and Lacanian lenses for unconscious desires and inner conflicts. Soliloquies expose the psyche's gaps and silences, showing how intuition overrides reason, prefiguring modern psychology's dual-process theory. Plays like King Lear depict mental illness (e.g., madness from grief), offering insights into depression, post-traumatic stress, and human resilience. Overall, Shakespeare's intuitive grasp of the mind—nature vs. nurture, conscious vs. unconscious—has informed psychoanalysis and continues to expand understandings of mental health.
How Shakespeare Promoted His Own Work
Shakespeare promoted his work through performance and patronage rather than modern marketing. In 1594, he joined the Lord Chamberlain's Men (later King's Men), a prominent acting troupe that performed at court and built the Globe Theatre in 1599, drawing diverse crowds and ensuring wide exposure. His narrative poems, like Venus and Adonis (1593), became overnight best-sellers, reprinted multiple times and alluded to widely for their erotic appeal. Plays were not published by him personally—he focused on scripts for the stage—but some appeared in quarto editions during his life, boosting fame (e.g., Henry IV, Part 1 went through multiple printings). He cultivated relationships with patrons like the Earl of Southampton, dedicating works to them for financial support and prestige. By 1599, anecdotes circulated about him, and his talent drew crowds, making him a celebrity in London's theater scene. Word-of-mouth and repeat performances amplified his reach, with plays like Hamlet gaining rapid popularity through public acclaim.
The Posthumous Project: The First Folio and Its Editors
Seven years after Shakespeare's death in 1616, his colleagues compiled and published Mr. William Shakespeares Comedies, Histories, & Tragedies—known as the First Folio—in 1623, preserving 36 plays, 18 of which (including Macbeth, The Tempest, and Twelfth Night) appeared in print for the first time, saving them from potential loss. This groundbreaking anthology, the first of its kind for dramatic works, was a tribute orchestrated by outstanding followers: actors John Heminges and Henry Condell, who edited and compiled from scripts, drafts, and promptbooks. Printed in folio format by William and Isaac Jaggard (with Edward Blount as a key bookseller), it included commendatory verses by Ben Jonson and others, dedicating it to the Earls of Pembroke and Montgomery.
Around 750 copies were produced between February 1622 and November 1623, entered in the Stationers' Register on November 8, 1623. Heminges and Condell urged readers to spread the word, framing it as a memorial to Shakespeare's "living art." The project reflected political undercurrents, like pro-Spanish alliances via contributors' ties, and solidified his legacy amid the "deafening silence" following his death—no immediate eulogies emerged until this volume. Today, about 233 copies survive, underscoring its enduring cultural value.
The Globe Theatre is created in 1599. It is managed by the actors of the Lord Chamberlain's Men company in the form of a share capital. William Shakespeare has little stake in this business but he is the principal author of the plays which are performed there.
This man of the stage died in 1616 without having paid attention to the literary value of his own works. Half of his plays were unpublished. The others had been issued as poor quality booklets of which we can be assume that they were not verified by the author.
John Heminges and Henry Condell, who owned overall half of the shares of the Globe Theatre, judiciously decided to reconstruct with the best possible accuracy the whole of Shakespeare's dramatic work. They knew 36 plays of which 18 had never been published. They will have to buy back the publishing rights to some of them and to retrieve the partial manuscripts that had been entrusted to the actors to perform their own role.
The print is of the top luxury, in relation to the literary magnificence of the work. What would later be called the First Folio is a superb volume of 454 leaves 32 x 21 cm, printed in 1623 by Jaggard and Blount. It is forever used as the top reference for any Shakespearean scholarship.
The production run of the First Folio is estimated at around 750 copies. About 220 survive today. 56 are complete, of which only 5 are in private hands. All but six are from the third issue when the content was frozen and the error of a redundant page has been corrected.
Shakespeare is the greatest success in English literature and editions are multiplying. Garrick puts Shakespeare still higher in fashion and Edmond Malone devotes his life to the study of his work. Malone proposes in 1778 a chronology of the plays, observes the literary greatness of the First Folio and has a new edition published in 1790.
On October 14, 2020, Christie's sold a complete copy of the First Folio for $ 10M from a lower estimate of $ 4M, lot 12. In 1809 its owner had submitted it to Malone's appreciation just before having it bound. The expert's autograph letter is joined to the volume. Malone found it to be a fine, genuine copy of the First Folio. A few small repairs will be carried out according to his recommendations. This copy has retained the cleanliness observed by Malone more than 200 years ago.
This man of the stage died in 1616 without having paid attention to the literary value of his own works. Half of his plays were unpublished. The others had been issued as poor quality booklets of which we can be assume that they were not verified by the author.
John Heminges and Henry Condell, who owned overall half of the shares of the Globe Theatre, judiciously decided to reconstruct with the best possible accuracy the whole of Shakespeare's dramatic work. They knew 36 plays of which 18 had never been published. They will have to buy back the publishing rights to some of them and to retrieve the partial manuscripts that had been entrusted to the actors to perform their own role.
The print is of the top luxury, in relation to the literary magnificence of the work. What would later be called the First Folio is a superb volume of 454 leaves 32 x 21 cm, printed in 1623 by Jaggard and Blount. It is forever used as the top reference for any Shakespearean scholarship.
The production run of the First Folio is estimated at around 750 copies. About 220 survive today. 56 are complete, of which only 5 are in private hands. All but six are from the third issue when the content was frozen and the error of a redundant page has been corrected.
Shakespeare is the greatest success in English literature and editions are multiplying. Garrick puts Shakespeare still higher in fashion and Edmond Malone devotes his life to the study of his work. Malone proposes in 1778 a chronology of the plays, observes the literary greatness of the First Folio and has a new edition published in 1790.
On October 14, 2020, Christie's sold a complete copy of the First Folio for $ 10M from a lower estimate of $ 4M, lot 12. In 1809 its owner had submitted it to Malone's appreciation just before having it bound. The expert's autograph letter is joined to the volume. Malone found it to be a fine, genuine copy of the First Folio. A few small repairs will be carried out according to his recommendations. This copy has retained the cleanliness observed by Malone more than 200 years ago.
Only five complete copies of the 'First Folio' remain in private hands, and on 24 April in #NewYork, Christie’s will offer the first complete copy to come on the market in almost two decades during our #ExceptionalSale. https://t.co/orNUeX30H0 pic.twitter.com/k90SszIXD0
— Christie's (@ChristiesInc) February 25, 2020
1624 Bagpipe Player by ter Brugghen
2009 SOLD for $ 10.2M by Sotheby's
An oil on canvas 101 x 83 cm by Hendrick ter Brugghen, signed and dated 1624, stages a bagpipe player. It was once the pendant of a lute player. A flute player is also known. These representations of popular are faraway from from the luxurious themes of the period.
Each of these musicians is represented alone with his instrument, against a neutral background. The simple beret, the badly cut beard and the naked shoulder of the bagpiper describe a musician of the peasant class. The effects of shadows and light give him presence and psychology.
Indeed ter Brugghen, who worked in Utrecht, may have known Caravaggio on a trip to Rome and was one of his first followers. The bagpipe player was sold for for $ 10.2M from a lower estimate of $ 4M by Sotheby's on January 29, 2009, lot 40. The image is shared by Wikimedia.
Each of these musicians is represented alone with his instrument, against a neutral background. The simple beret, the badly cut beard and the naked shoulder of the bagpiper describe a musician of the peasant class. The effects of shadows and light give him presence and psychology.
Indeed ter Brugghen, who worked in Utrecht, may have known Caravaggio on a trip to Rome and was one of his first followers. The bagpipe player was sold for for $ 10.2M from a lower estimate of $ 4M by Sotheby's on January 29, 2009, lot 40. The image is shared by Wikimedia.
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1626 Bacchic Figure supporting the Globe by de Vries
2014 SOLD for $ 28M by Christie's
Influenced by Giambologna, Adriaen De Vries was spreading the new fashion for mannerism. Their bronzes give life to muscular bodies twisted in expressive attitudes inspired by antiquity, and which will be much later admired by Rodin. De Vries is famous for his statues for gardens and fountains. Working in Prague for the Emperor Rudolf II, he remained in that city after the death of his patron and accepted private commissions.
During a routine visit to a castle in 2010, the expert from Christie's takes a look at the fountain in the middle of the yard. Thus a previously unrecorded masterpiece enters the art history.
The bronze 109 cm high adorning the top of the fountain had been in that place for at least 300 years. It is signed by Adriaen de Vries and dated 1626, the year of the artist's death. The theme is a naked standing mythological figure carrying a globe. It was sold for $ 28M from a lower estimate of $ 15M by Christie's on December 11, 2014, lot 10.
On December 7, 1989, the Getty bought at Sotheby's for £ 6.8M a Dancing faun 76 cm high.
During a routine visit to a castle in 2010, the expert from Christie's takes a look at the fountain in the middle of the yard. Thus a previously unrecorded masterpiece enters the art history.
The bronze 109 cm high adorning the top of the fountain had been in that place for at least 300 years. It is signed by Adriaen de Vries and dated 1626, the year of the artist's death. The theme is a naked standing mythological figure carrying a globe. It was sold for $ 28M from a lower estimate of $ 15M by Christie's on December 11, 2014, lot 10.
On December 7, 1989, the Getty bought at Sotheby's for £ 6.8M a Dancing faun 76 cm high.
Figure carrying a globe by Adriaen de Vries, sold by Christie's on December 11, 2014, lot 10. Significance in the history of mannerist bronzes.
Adriaen de Vries's Bacchic Figure Supporting the Globe (1626), often described as a figure carrying a globe, is a late Mannerist bronze sculpture that sold at Christie's Exceptional Sale in New York on December 11, 2014, for $27,885,000 (including buyer's premium). This piece was acquired by the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam.
Description and Iconography
The bronze depicts a nude youthful male figure, adorned with vine leaves in his hair, standing astride and hunched forward while supporting a celestial globe on his shoulders and head. A tree trunk entwined with grapevines and pan pipes adds Bacchic elements, on an integrally cast plinth signed and dated "ADRIANVS FRIES 1626." Scholars interpret it as a conflation of mythological themes, primarily evoking Hercules temporarily bearing the globe for Atlas, blended with Bacchic motifs (symbolizing indulgence) and possibly Hercules at the Crossroads (virtue versus vice). The Rijksmuseum now titles it simply Atlas.
Historical Context
Created in the final year of de Vries's life (ca. 1550–1626), a Dutch sculptor trained under Giambologna in Florence and later court artist to Emperor Rudolf II in Prague, this work exemplifies his innovative late style: highly expressive, sketchy modeling with minimal post-casting chasing, preserving the direct wax model tactility. This "expressionistic" approach appeared strikingly modern, anticipating 19th–20th-century sculptors like Rodin and earning de Vries the nickname "the Dutch Michelangelo.
"Significance in Mannerist Bronzes
The rediscovery of this previously unrecorded masterpiece—hidden in a private collection for centuries—marked a major art historical event. It set a world auction record for de Vries (surpassing his 1989 Dancing Faun at £6.8 million) and for any early European sculpture at the time. Its repatriation to the Netherlands filled a gap: prior to this, no major de Vries bronze existed in a Dutch public collection (most of his works were plundered during the Thirty Years' War and dispersed, with large groups in Sweden). The sale underscored the rarity and market value of top-tier Northern Mannerist bronzes, highlighting de Vries's pivotal role in transitioning from late Mannerism to early Baroque sculpture through his dynamic, tactile surfaces and psychological depth.
The sculpture remains on permanent display at the Rijksmuseum, representing a landmark acquisition for the study and appreciation of Northern European bronze sculpture.
Adriaen de Vries's Bacchic Figure Supporting the Globe (1626), often described as a figure carrying a globe, is a late Mannerist bronze sculpture that sold at Christie's Exceptional Sale in New York on December 11, 2014, for $27,885,000 (including buyer's premium). This piece was acquired by the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam.
Description and Iconography
The bronze depicts a nude youthful male figure, adorned with vine leaves in his hair, standing astride and hunched forward while supporting a celestial globe on his shoulders and head. A tree trunk entwined with grapevines and pan pipes adds Bacchic elements, on an integrally cast plinth signed and dated "ADRIANVS FRIES 1626." Scholars interpret it as a conflation of mythological themes, primarily evoking Hercules temporarily bearing the globe for Atlas, blended with Bacchic motifs (symbolizing indulgence) and possibly Hercules at the Crossroads (virtue versus vice). The Rijksmuseum now titles it simply Atlas.
Historical Context
Created in the final year of de Vries's life (ca. 1550–1626), a Dutch sculptor trained under Giambologna in Florence and later court artist to Emperor Rudolf II in Prague, this work exemplifies his innovative late style: highly expressive, sketchy modeling with minimal post-casting chasing, preserving the direct wax model tactility. This "expressionistic" approach appeared strikingly modern, anticipating 19th–20th-century sculptors like Rodin and earning de Vries the nickname "the Dutch Michelangelo.
"Significance in Mannerist Bronzes
The rediscovery of this previously unrecorded masterpiece—hidden in a private collection for centuries—marked a major art historical event. It set a world auction record for de Vries (surpassing his 1989 Dancing Faun at £6.8 million) and for any early European sculpture at the time. Its repatriation to the Netherlands filled a gap: prior to this, no major de Vries bronze existed in a Dutch public collection (most of his works were plundered during the Thirty Years' War and dispersed, with large groups in Sweden). The sale underscored the rarity and market value of top-tier Northern Mannerist bronzes, highlighting de Vries's pivotal role in transitioning from late Mannerism to early Baroque sculpture through his dynamic, tactile surfaces and psychological depth.
The sculpture remains on permanent display at the Rijksmuseum, representing a landmark acquisition for the study and appreciation of Northern European bronze sculpture.
REMBRANDT
1
breakthrough
1625 Stoning of St. Stephen
Musée de Lyon
Working in his hometown Leiden in a productive rivalry with the child prodigy Jan Lievens, the young and ambitious Rembrandt van Rijn manages to revolutionize the art of painting for its effects of light on the faces, night and day, bold compositions and unconventional themes. He makes his hand to tronies, self portraits and the biblical conducive to bring him patrons and fame.
In 1625, an early painting is a stoning of St. Stephen. It is a chiaroscuro separated by a diagonal, seeking by this bold composition to highlight the epic nature of the scene. The image is shared by Wikimedia.
In 1625, an early painting is a stoning of St. Stephen. It is a chiaroscuro separated by a diagonal, seeking by this bold composition to highlight the epic nature of the scene. The image is shared by Wikimedia.
2
1626-1627 Bust portrait of a soldier
2012 SOLD for £ 8.4M by Christie's
In 1626-1627, Rembrandt was operating a studio in Leiden, his hometown, in cooperation with Jan Lievens. Both artists, aged 20, had been apprentices with Pieter Lastman in Amsterdam, and were already known for their immense talent.
Rembrandt wants to show his skills as a portraitist and specializes in tronies, these anonymous figures of characters showing varied human types. To win clients, he endeavours to show that he is mastering the technique of painting, the composition, and of course these contrasts of light and shadow made popular by Caravaggio and his followers.
On July 3, 2012, Christie's sold for £ 8.4M the bust portrait of a soldier, a small panel 40 x 29 cm. Please watch the video shared by the auction house. The image is shared by Wikimedia.
The chiaroscuro is particularly marked in this work, where half of the face is in the shadow of the wide hat. The realism of this heavy face is pretty neat. Whether you are beautiful or ugly, your best portrait will be done by the specialist, Harmensz Rembrandt van Rijn. The character is of course not identifiable, nor the origin of his uniform.
Rembrandt wants to show his skills as a portraitist and specializes in tronies, these anonymous figures of characters showing varied human types. To win clients, he endeavours to show that he is mastering the technique of painting, the composition, and of course these contrasts of light and shadow made popular by Caravaggio and his followers.
On July 3, 2012, Christie's sold for £ 8.4M the bust portrait of a soldier, a small panel 40 x 29 cm. Please watch the video shared by the auction house. The image is shared by Wikimedia.
The chiaroscuro is particularly marked in this work, where half of the face is in the shadow of the wide hat. The realism of this heavy face is pretty neat. Whether you are beautiful or ugly, your best portrait will be done by the specialist, Harmensz Rembrandt van Rijn. The character is of course not identifiable, nor the origin of his uniform.
3
1628 The Adoration of the Kings
2023 SOLD for £ 11M by Sotheby's
Staging by night an Adoration of the Kings with the Star of Bethlehem as a secondary light is probably unprecedented. A small oil on oak panel 24.5 x 18.5 cm upright painted in grisaille and sepia with ochre ca 1628 is certainly a sketch for an etching that was never made, or made in another theme such as the 1630 Presentation to the Temple.
At that time the artist also used the technique of oil on copper for small size such as a Denial of St. Peter also processed as an Oriental multi-figure nocturnal lit from the left.
The Adoration had been considered as painted by Rembrandt until an auction at Christie's in 1985. Once again offered as from the circle of Rembrandt by Christie's while providing the visibility to the former full attribution, it was sold for € 860K from a lower estimate of € 10K on October 6, 2021, lot 7.
Re-attributed to Rembrandt by Sotheby's through infrared imaging revealing the scratches of the pictorial revisions over black framing lines, it iwas sold for £ 11M on December 6, 2023, lot 11. Please watch the video shared by the auction house.
At that time the artist also used the technique of oil on copper for small size such as a Denial of St. Peter also processed as an Oriental multi-figure nocturnal lit from the left.
The Adoration had been considered as painted by Rembrandt until an auction at Christie's in 1985. Once again offered as from the circle of Rembrandt by Christie's while providing the visibility to the former full attribution, it was sold for € 860K from a lower estimate of € 10K on October 6, 2021, lot 7.
Re-attributed to Rembrandt by Sotheby's through infrared imaging revealing the scratches of the pictorial revisions over black framing lines, it iwas sold for £ 11M on December 6, 2023, lot 11. Please watch the video shared by the auction house.
DONG QICHANG in the style of Huang Gongwang
Intro
Huang Gongwang, a scholar-official of the Southern school, had made a breakthrough in the art of landscape imaging. Disillusioned by the political turpitudes, he spent his old age in the Fuchun mountains near Hangzhou. He was acknowledged by Dong Qichang as the best master of the Yuan dynasty.
He constructed his landscape by very dry brush strokes and very light ink wash. His masterpiece is a long handscroll resulting from a three year work, 1347 to 1350 CE. Starting from observation, the artist builds an ideal Taoist landscape of mountains and rivers in which he adds many tiny details. The whole is integrating the flow of the four seasons. This realistic style departs from the yin and yang inspiration of landscape shaping. That scroll was acquired by Dong Qichang in 1596 CE.
He constructed his landscape by very dry brush strokes and very light ink wash. His masterpiece is a long handscroll resulting from a three year work, 1347 to 1350 CE. Starting from observation, the artist builds an ideal Taoist landscape of mountains and rivers in which he adds many tiny details. The whole is integrating the flow of the four seasons. This realistic style departs from the yin and yang inspiration of landscape shaping. That scroll was acquired by Dong Qichang in 1596 CE.
1
undated Thatched Cottage in a Sparse Forest
2015 SOLD for RMB 69M by China Guardian
On November 15, 2015, China Guardian sold for RMB 69M a mountain landscape by Dong Qichang, hand scroll 26 x 146 cm, lot 1327.
The clean and sharp ink line defines a mountain landscape where the accumulation of rocks is beautifully exaggerated. The ground is scattered with more realistic trees. The scenery is not animated, but a discrete group of thatched cottages brings a human dimension.
The auction house opens the question if the landscape is a reinterpretation of Huang's Fuchun or a transfer of his style to the Jiangnan scenery.
The clean and sharp ink line defines a mountain landscape where the accumulation of rocks is beautifully exaggerated. The ground is scattered with more realistic trees. The scenery is not animated, but a discrete group of thatched cottages brings a human dimension.
The auction house opens the question if the landscape is a reinterpretation of Huang's Fuchun or a transfer of his style to the Jiangnan scenery.
2
1627 Fuchun Mountain
2012 SOLD for RMB 63M by China Guardian
A handscroll 28.5 x 297 cm painted by Dong Qichang in 1627 CE is an acknowledged reinterpretation of Huang Gongwang's Fuchun Mountains. Even the coloring method is an imitation of Huang's Fuchun original, then owned by Dong who had also just acquired a replica by Shen Zhou.
It was sold for RMB 63M by China Guardian on October 28, 2012, lot 868. In opposition with the picture narrated above, the horizon is not trimmed by the upper edge.
It was sold for RMB 63M by China Guardian on October 28, 2012, lot 868. In opposition with the picture narrated above, the horizon is not trimmed by the upper edge.
1627-1972 The Taj Mahal of Elizabeth Taylor
2011 SOLD for $ 8.8M by Christie's
The ideal art, which makes the whole world dream, must evoke love, death and wealth at the same time. Adding elegance and monumentality, I described the Taj Mahal, the mausoleum of the beloved wife of Shah Jahan.
In 1972, for Elizabeth Taylor's 40th birthday, Richard Burton humorously declares that he would have liked to offer her the Taj Mahal but that the monument was not transportable. The real gift is an evocation of it : a Mughal piece of jewelry, which Burton had bought for around £ 350K.
This jewel is centered with a large heart-shaped diamond inserted in a surrounding of same shape in red stones, jade and small diamonds. The diamond is inscribed in Persian : Nur Jahan Baygum Padshah, 23, 1037. The ribbon for using it as a pendant is faded. Liz Taylor has it replaced by Cartier with a gold chain terminated by a fraying of gold threads bearing rubies.
In the Hegira calendar, 1037, corresponding to 1627 CE, is the year of Jahangir's death in the 23rd year of his reign and thus marks the end of the long recency of his wife Nur Jahan. Shah Jahan is the son and successor of Jahangir.
This jewel designated as the Taj Mahal was sold on December 13, 2011 for $ 8.8M from a lower estimate of $ 300K, lot 56 in the auction by Christie's of Elizabeth Taylor's estate.
After the sale, the buyer, who remained anonymous, understands that there is no evidence that the Taj Mahal jewel was ever in the hands of Jahangir or Shah Jahan. He is an important customer and Christie's is attempting to cancel the sale of this lot. The trust in charge of the actress's estate opposed it in 2015 and 2017 by legal complaints, arguing the absence of irregularity. The end of the story is not known.
In 1972, for Elizabeth Taylor's 40th birthday, Richard Burton humorously declares that he would have liked to offer her the Taj Mahal but that the monument was not transportable. The real gift is an evocation of it : a Mughal piece of jewelry, which Burton had bought for around £ 350K.
This jewel is centered with a large heart-shaped diamond inserted in a surrounding of same shape in red stones, jade and small diamonds. The diamond is inscribed in Persian : Nur Jahan Baygum Padshah, 23, 1037. The ribbon for using it as a pendant is faded. Liz Taylor has it replaced by Cartier with a gold chain terminated by a fraying of gold threads bearing rubies.
In the Hegira calendar, 1037, corresponding to 1627 CE, is the year of Jahangir's death in the 23rd year of his reign and thus marks the end of the long recency of his wife Nur Jahan. Shah Jahan is the son and successor of Jahangir.
This jewel designated as the Taj Mahal was sold on December 13, 2011 for $ 8.8M from a lower estimate of $ 300K, lot 56 in the auction by Christie's of Elizabeth Taylor's estate.
After the sale, the buyer, who remained anonymous, understands that there is no evidence that the Taj Mahal jewel was ever in the hands of Jahangir or Shah Jahan. He is an important customer and Christie's is attempting to cancel the sale of this lot. The trust in charge of the actress's estate opposed it in 2015 and 2017 by legal complaints, arguing the absence of irregularity. The end of the story is not known.
1627-1629 St. John the Evangelist by Domenichino
2009 SOLD for £ 9.2M by Christie's
Domenico Zampieri, better known as Domenichino, was born in Bologna in 1581. In that city he was naturally a student and collaborator of the Carracci. Like them, he reacts against mannerism with a simple style and sharp colors. His themes show no originality, but his careful workmanship makes him one of the best artists of his time.
Painter of religious subjects, he was especially a fresco artist, and so was accustomed to very large sizes. A St. John the Evangelist executed between 1627 and 1629 has a monumental dimension for an ancient canvas, 2.5 x 2 m.
The saint in a red dress is in an attitude of a preacher or a teacher, confirmed as such by the two inevitable symbolic putti wearing open books.
This painting was regarded in the eighteenth century as a masterpiece of one of the greatest masters, but fashions change and Domenichino ceased to be so flattered. After being kept for one hundred years in the same family, it was sold for £ 9.2M from a lower estimate of £ 7M by Christie's on December 8, 2009. The image is shared by Wikimedia.
Painter of religious subjects, he was especially a fresco artist, and so was accustomed to very large sizes. A St. John the Evangelist executed between 1627 and 1629 has a monumental dimension for an ancient canvas, 2.5 x 2 m.
The saint in a red dress is in an attitude of a preacher or a teacher, confirmed as such by the two inevitable symbolic putti wearing open books.
This painting was regarded in the eighteenth century as a masterpiece of one of the greatest masters, but fashions change and Domenichino ceased to be so flattered. After being kept for one hundred years in the same family, it was sold for £ 9.2M from a lower estimate of £ 7M by Christie's on December 8, 2009. The image is shared by Wikimedia.
masterpiece
1628-1629 Annunciation by Rubens
Antwerp Rubenshuis
A sketch for the Annunciation by Rubens served as a modello for a large size altarpiece painting 310 x 180 cm with a rounded top. Both were probably executed during the second stay of the artist in Spain, between August 1628 and April 1629.
In this much balanced composition inspired from Titian, Gabriel is flying down to the confidently praying Mary kneeling on a prie-dieu while a pair of putti are throwing flowers from the sky. A dove represents the Holy Spirit.
The sketch is an oil on panel 42 x 31.4 cm executed with great speed and spontaneity like a drawing. In the sketch the putti are blurred while the two major characters are more clearly defined. The dendrochronology finds that the tree had been fallen around 1615. It was sold by Sotheby's for $ 4.8M on February 6, 2025, lot 325. Please watch the video shared by the auction house.
The image of the altarpiece is shared by Wikimedia.
In this much balanced composition inspired from Titian, Gabriel is flying down to the confidently praying Mary kneeling on a prie-dieu while a pair of putti are throwing flowers from the sky. A dove represents the Holy Spirit.
The sketch is an oil on panel 42 x 31.4 cm executed with great speed and spontaneity like a drawing. In the sketch the putti are blurred while the two major characters are more clearly defined. The dendrochronology finds that the tree had been fallen around 1615. It was sold by Sotheby's for $ 4.8M on February 6, 2025, lot 325. Please watch the video shared by the auction house.
The image of the altarpiece is shared by Wikimedia.
