Chinese Calligraphy
Except otherwise stated, all results include the premium.
See also : China Chinese art Song Yuan Ming Buddhism
Chronology : 1-1000 1000-1400 14th century 15th century 1430-1459 1610-1619
See also : China Chinese art Song Yuan Ming Buddhism
Chronology : 1-1000 1000-1400 14th century 15th century 1430-1459 1610-1619
Special Report
Emperor Taizong's calligraphy obsession
Emperor Taizong of Tang (Li Shimin, r. 626–649 CE) had one of the most famous and intense obsessions with calligraphy in Chinese history, particularly with the works of Wang Xizhi, the Sage of Calligraphy. His passion wasn't just personal admiration—it actively shaped the canon of Chinese calligraphy, ensuring Wang's style became the dominant model for centuries.
Depth of His Obsession
Li Shimin (Emperor Taizong) was himself a skilled calligrapher, but he viewed Wang Xizhi's running script (行书) as the absolute pinnacle of the art. He went to extraordinary lengths to acquire Wang's works:
Impact and Legacy
To preserve and propagate Wang's style (since originals were scarce and fragile), Taizong commissioned the best court calligraphers and artisans to produce precise tracing copies (double-hook outlines filled in with ink, known as shuanggou moji 双钩摹迹) and stone engravings for rubbings. Many surviving "copies" of Wang Xizhi's works today trace back to these Tang-era reproductions ordered by Taizong.
Depth of His Obsession
Li Shimin (Emperor Taizong) was himself a skilled calligrapher, but he viewed Wang Xizhi's running script (行书) as the absolute pinnacle of the art. He went to extraordinary lengths to acquire Wang's works:
- He mobilized imperial resources to search for and collect authentic pieces or high-quality early copies across the empire.
- He amassed a vast collection of Wang Xizhi's originals and rubbings, reportedly owning hundreds of pieces.
- His favorite was the legendary Lantingji Xu (蘭亭集序, "Preface to the Poems Composed at the Orchid Pavilion Gathering"), written by Wang in 353 CE during a famous literary gathering. Taizong considered it the finest example of calligraphy ever created—elegant, spontaneous, balanced, and full of vitality.
Impact and Legacy
To preserve and propagate Wang's style (since originals were scarce and fragile), Taizong commissioned the best court calligraphers and artisans to produce precise tracing copies (double-hook outlines filled in with ink, known as shuanggou moji 双钩摹迹) and stone engravings for rubbings. Many surviving "copies" of Wang Xizhi's works today trace back to these Tang-era reproductions ordered by Taizong.
- He personally practiced copying Wang's style extensively, often using models provided by masters like Yu Shinan (a disciple in the lineage).
- Taizong wrote essays praising Wang, such as "On Wang Xizhi," elevating him as the ultimate exemplar of harmony, naturalness, and moral virtue in brushwork—qualities Taizong linked to ideal Confucian rulership.
- This imperial endorsement standardized Wang Xizhi's style as the orthodox model. Later Tang emperors, Song scholars, and virtually all major calligraphers emulated it, making Wang's influence nearly insurmountable.
Tang period copy of a calligraphy by Wang Xizhi
2010 SOLD for RMB 310M by China Guardian
The greatest masters of calligraphy pass on their knowledge to the literati. Under the Jin in the 4th century CE, Wang Xizhi achieves the supreme elegance with cursive calligraphy, to which his son Wang Xianzhi brings fluidity by writing each character in a single brush stroke.
On November 20-23, 2010, China Guardian sold for RMB 310M a fragment containing 4 lines on silk 25 x 14 cm of a poem by Wang Xizhi on the theme of a security wish. It is illustrated in the post sale article shared by BBC. This sheet has been separated into two pieces in ancient times.
Its cursive script is much in the style of Wang Xizhi. Experts believe that it was made in the Tang dynasty period. The auction house checked its provenance up to the time of the Yuan.
No autograph work by Wang Xizhi is surviving. The Qianlong emperor inscribed this manuscript twice. He considered it as important as another script from Wang Xizhi on the subject of the sunshine after heavy snow that was in the Imperial Collection.
Copy of a work by Wang Xizhi - a Jin dynasty figure who is known as the Sage of Calligraphy. The original is lost. The copy is a scroll on silk with four lines of characters. It was sold by China Guardian in November 2010. Significance of the copy in the history of Chinese calligraphy.
The specific copy you're referring to is a famous silk scroll fragment known as Ping An Tie (平安帖, "Safety Wish Script" or "Letter of Good Wishes for Safety"), a short four-line text attributed as a copy of a work by Wang Xizhi (王羲之, 303–361 CE), the Jin dynasty calligrapher universally revered as the Sage of Calligraphy (书圣) in Chinese history.
No original authentic works by Wang Xizhi survive today—his originals are lost, largely due to the passage of time, wars, and the fragile nature of early materials. What remains are copies (often called "traces" or moben 摹本) made by later generations, some from as early as the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), when Emperor Taizong passionately collected and promoted Wang's style, commissioning precise reproductions and rubbings.
This particular piece is a small silk hand scroll fragment (approximately 24.5 cm × 13.8 cm) bearing just four lines of running script (行书, xingshu) characters. It was sold at the China Guardian Auctions autumn sale in Beijing on November 20, 2010, fetching 308 million yuan (about $46.3–46.4 million USD at the time, including buyer's premium). This made it one of the most expensive Chinese artworks ever sold at auction up to that point (second only to another Chinese work in recent records), and it highlighted the surging market for top-tier classical calligraphy.
The content expresses a courteous inquiry about someone's well-being (along the lines of wishing safety and health), typical of Wang's surviving letter-style pieces.
Significance in the History of Chinese Calligraphy
Wang Xizhi's influence is foundational: he perfected and popularized the running script, blending the structure of regular script with the fluidity of cursive, achieving an ideal balance of elegance, natural flow, spontaneity, and structural integrity. This style became the model for virtually all later Chinese calligraphy, studied and emulated by emperors, scholars, and artists across dynasties.
Since no originals exist, high-quality historical copies like this one carry immense value:
On November 20-23, 2010, China Guardian sold for RMB 310M a fragment containing 4 lines on silk 25 x 14 cm of a poem by Wang Xizhi on the theme of a security wish. It is illustrated in the post sale article shared by BBC. This sheet has been separated into two pieces in ancient times.
Its cursive script is much in the style of Wang Xizhi. Experts believe that it was made in the Tang dynasty period. The auction house checked its provenance up to the time of the Yuan.
No autograph work by Wang Xizhi is surviving. The Qianlong emperor inscribed this manuscript twice. He considered it as important as another script from Wang Xizhi on the subject of the sunshine after heavy snow that was in the Imperial Collection.
Copy of a work by Wang Xizhi - a Jin dynasty figure who is known as the Sage of Calligraphy. The original is lost. The copy is a scroll on silk with four lines of characters. It was sold by China Guardian in November 2010. Significance of the copy in the history of Chinese calligraphy.
The specific copy you're referring to is a famous silk scroll fragment known as Ping An Tie (平安帖, "Safety Wish Script" or "Letter of Good Wishes for Safety"), a short four-line text attributed as a copy of a work by Wang Xizhi (王羲之, 303–361 CE), the Jin dynasty calligrapher universally revered as the Sage of Calligraphy (书圣) in Chinese history.
No original authentic works by Wang Xizhi survive today—his originals are lost, largely due to the passage of time, wars, and the fragile nature of early materials. What remains are copies (often called "traces" or moben 摹本) made by later generations, some from as early as the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), when Emperor Taizong passionately collected and promoted Wang's style, commissioning precise reproductions and rubbings.
This particular piece is a small silk hand scroll fragment (approximately 24.5 cm × 13.8 cm) bearing just four lines of running script (行书, xingshu) characters. It was sold at the China Guardian Auctions autumn sale in Beijing on November 20, 2010, fetching 308 million yuan (about $46.3–46.4 million USD at the time, including buyer's premium). This made it one of the most expensive Chinese artworks ever sold at auction up to that point (second only to another Chinese work in recent records), and it highlighted the surging market for top-tier classical calligraphy.
The content expresses a courteous inquiry about someone's well-being (along the lines of wishing safety and health), typical of Wang's surviving letter-style pieces.
Significance in the History of Chinese Calligraphy
Wang Xizhi's influence is foundational: he perfected and popularized the running script, blending the structure of regular script with the fluidity of cursive, achieving an ideal balance of elegance, natural flow, spontaneity, and structural integrity. This style became the model for virtually all later Chinese calligraphy, studied and emulated by emperors, scholars, and artists across dynasties.
Since no originals exist, high-quality historical copies like this one carry immense value:
- They preserve the closest approximations of Wang's brushwork, rhythm, and spirit.
- Tang-era or Song-era copies (this piece was often described as an ancient copy, though its exact dating attribution varied in reports—likely Tang or later but of exceptional pedigree) are especially prized because they were made when original works or very early copies were still accessible.
- They serve as critical models for learning and transmission of the art form.
- In the modern era, such rare survivors underscore Wang's enduring status as the pinnacle of the art, driving record-breaking prices and reflecting cultural nationalism and collector enthusiasm for China's classical heritage.
1080 Letter to a Friend by Zeng Gong
2016 SOLD for RMB 207M by China Guardian
Zeng Gong lived at the height of the Song dynasty. He had received the jinshi, the highest degree of the imperial exams, and had a parallel literary and military career, as it was often the case. He was a historian, geographer, poet and essayist. Without being a professional calligrapher, he was a collector of ancient calligraphy and inscribed tablets.
An autograph letter has survived. 124 characters in regular kaishu script are distributed in thirteen columns in a perfect parallelism and spacing on a 29 x 38 cm sheet. It is precisely dated, corresponding to September 27, 1080 CE. The image is shared by Wikimedia.
In this document titled Jushi Tie (letter on some happenings), Zeng writes to a friend whom he had not seen for three years. He expresses his doubts about his ability to hold a post at the court. This question was on the spot since he will be summoned a month later in the capital Kaifeng to be awarded a promotion by the Shenzong emperor, with the mission of a study on the history of the Five Dynasties.
Jushi Tie was sold for RMB 109M by Poly on November 22, 2009, lot 5126, and for RMB 207M by China Guardian on May 15, 2016, lot 1424.
An autograph letter has survived. 124 characters in regular kaishu script are distributed in thirteen columns in a perfect parallelism and spacing on a 29 x 38 cm sheet. It is precisely dated, corresponding to September 27, 1080 CE. The image is shared by Wikimedia.
In this document titled Jushi Tie (letter on some happenings), Zeng writes to a friend whom he had not seen for three years. He expresses his doubts about his ability to hold a post at the court. This question was on the spot since he will be summoned a month later in the capital Kaifeng to be awarded a promotion by the Shenzong emperor, with the mission of a study on the history of the Five Dynasties.
Jushi Tie was sold for RMB 109M by Poly on November 22, 2009, lot 5126, and for RMB 207M by China Guardian on May 15, 2016, lot 1424.
Letter to a friend by Zeng Gong, sold by China Guardian on May 15, 2016, lot 1424. Significance as a piece of Chinese calligraphy. Condition and authentication.
Overview of the Artwork
The item in question is Jushi Tie (局事帖, often translated as "Letter on Current Affairs" or "A Letter on Happenings"), a personal letter written by the renowned Northern Song dynasty (960–1279) scholar-official Zeng Gong (曾巩, 1019–1083). This ink-on-paper work, measuring approximately 29 × 38.2 cm (11.4 × 15 inches), consists of 124 characters in regular script (kaishu). It was auctioned as lot 1424 in China Guardian's (中国嘉德) "Grand View: Chinese Paintings and Calligraphy Night Sale – Ancient" on May 15, 2016, in Beijing, where it sold for 207 million RMB (approximately US$31.7 million at the time), setting a record for a work of Chinese calligraphy by a single artist. The buyer was Wang Zhongjun, chairman of Huayi Brothers Media and a prominent art collector.
The letter was penned on September 27, 1080 (Yuanfeng 3), when Zeng was 62 years old. Addressed to a fellow countryman and friend known as "Wu Dang Xiangxian" (无党乡贤), it reflects on their three-year separation, expresses gratitude for the friend's support, laments Zeng's bureaucratic drudgery in provincial posts ("day after day lost in tedious official duties"), and subtly conveys envy for the friend's more leisurely life amid Zeng's own frustrations with court politics and delayed recall to the capital. Remarkably, less than a month later, Emperor Shenzong summoned Zeng to Kaifeng, promoting him to a central post—though he would pass away just three years later. The full text reads:
局事多暇。动履禔福。去远诲论之益。忽忽三载之久。跧处穷徼。日迷汨于吏职之冗。固岂有乐意耶。去受代之期。难幸密迩。而替人寂然未闻。亦旦夕望望。果能遂逃旷弛。实自贤者之力。夏秋之交。道出府下。因以致谢左右。庶竟万一。余冀顺序珍重。前即召擢。偶便专此上问。不宜。巩再拜。运勾奉议无党乡贤。二十七日。谨启。
(Seal: Zeng Gong Zai Bai)
Notably, the ink is applied to the reverse side of a printed Song-era book page, with faint traces of underlying text visible—a common recycling practice for paper at the time, adding a layer of historical texture to the artifact.
Significance as a Piece of Chinese Calligraphy
Zeng Gong's literary legacy towers in Chinese cultural history: he is one of the "Eight Masters of the Tang and Song" (唐宋八大家), alongside luminaries like Han Yu, Ouyang Xiu, and Wang Anshi. A pioneer of the Classical Prose Movement (古文运动), Zeng championed clear, argumentative prose over ornate styles, influencing generations of writers. His essays, such as those in Yuanfeng Leigao (元丰类稿), emphasize moral governance, historical insight, and simplicity—qualities that earned him posthumous acclaim from scholars like Zhu Xi.
Yet, for all his prolific writing, Zeng's calligraphy survives in just this single authenticated ink trace (zhuan shi mo ji, 传世墨迹). Even Zhu Xi, a devoted admirer born decades later, reportedly spent 50 years seeking a glimpse of Zeng's hand. This rarity elevates Jushi Tie to an unparalleled status: it is not merely a letter but the sole physical embodiment of Zeng's script, bridging his intellectual world with the tactile art of calligraphy.
Stylistically, the work exemplifies Song dynasty kaishu with influences from Tang masters Yan Zhenqing's Multi-Treasure Pagoda Stele (horizontal strokes fine, verticals robust) and Yang Ningstyle's Chive Flower Post (expressive, rugged vitality). Its structure echoes Cai Xiang (a near-contemporary), with elongated characters, vigorous yet refined strokes, and a fluid rhythm that conveys emotional depth—mirroring the letter's introspective tone. In Chinese art history, such personal missives (tie) are prized for their authenticity and immediacy, offering unfiltered glimpses into elite minds. Jushi Tie thus symbolizes the fusion of wenren (literati) ideals: literature, philosophy, and brushwork as one.
Its auction success underscores broader market trends. Previously sold at Christie's New York in 1996 for US$508,500 (to Belgian collectors Guy and Myriam Ullens) and Poly Auctions Beijing in 2009 for 108.64 million RMB (a then-record for Chinese calligraphy), the 2016 sale marked its third appearance, with a 45-fold appreciation over two decades. This trajectory reflects surging global demand for "national treasures" (guobao), especially Song-era works, amid China's cultural renaissance. Experts like Yi Guanghua (China Guardian) hail it as a "heart-pouring" artifact, its per-character value (over 1.6 million RMB) emblematic of calligraphy's role in preserving dynastic memory.
Condition and Authentication
The work is in exceptional condition for a millennium-old artifact, graded as "good" or "excellent" by auction standards. The paper remains intact and firm, with minimal foxing, creases, or insect damage typical of Song relics. Ink adhesion is strong, showing no significant fading or flaking, though the reverse-side printing subtly affects legibility in some areas— an intentional feature enhancing its authenticity rather than detracting. No restorations are noted in auction records, preserving its original patina.
Authentication is ironclad, rooted in meticulous provenance and scholarly scrutiny:
He Liangjun (何良俊)Ming (1368–1644)Early documented owner; collected Song letters for scholarly study.
Xiang Yuanbian (项元汴)MingAcquired He’s batch of 20+ Song missives; his seals affirm early Ming provenance.
An Yizhou (安仪周)Qing (1644–1911)Qing connoisseur; recorded in Mo Yuan Hui Guan (墨缘汇观), praising its vigor.
Zeng Yu (曾燠) & Wang Qisun (王芑孙)QingPassed through family lines; seals indicate careful stewardship.
Zhang Heng (张珩, "Zhang Congyu")Republican (1912–1949)Master appraiser; held by his family until mid-20th century export.
Zhang Wenkuan (张文魁)RepublicanBrief custodian; facilitated Western entry.
Guy & Myriam UllensModern (1996–2009)Belgian collectors; repatriated via 2009 Poly sale.
Seals from Xiang, An, and others are visible, forming a "chain of custody" unbroken since the Ming.
Modern validation includes:
Overview of the Artwork
The item in question is Jushi Tie (局事帖, often translated as "Letter on Current Affairs" or "A Letter on Happenings"), a personal letter written by the renowned Northern Song dynasty (960–1279) scholar-official Zeng Gong (曾巩, 1019–1083). This ink-on-paper work, measuring approximately 29 × 38.2 cm (11.4 × 15 inches), consists of 124 characters in regular script (kaishu). It was auctioned as lot 1424 in China Guardian's (中国嘉德) "Grand View: Chinese Paintings and Calligraphy Night Sale – Ancient" on May 15, 2016, in Beijing, where it sold for 207 million RMB (approximately US$31.7 million at the time), setting a record for a work of Chinese calligraphy by a single artist. The buyer was Wang Zhongjun, chairman of Huayi Brothers Media and a prominent art collector.
The letter was penned on September 27, 1080 (Yuanfeng 3), when Zeng was 62 years old. Addressed to a fellow countryman and friend known as "Wu Dang Xiangxian" (无党乡贤), it reflects on their three-year separation, expresses gratitude for the friend's support, laments Zeng's bureaucratic drudgery in provincial posts ("day after day lost in tedious official duties"), and subtly conveys envy for the friend's more leisurely life amid Zeng's own frustrations with court politics and delayed recall to the capital. Remarkably, less than a month later, Emperor Shenzong summoned Zeng to Kaifeng, promoting him to a central post—though he would pass away just three years later. The full text reads:
局事多暇。动履禔福。去远诲论之益。忽忽三载之久。跧处穷徼。日迷汨于吏职之冗。固岂有乐意耶。去受代之期。难幸密迩。而替人寂然未闻。亦旦夕望望。果能遂逃旷弛。实自贤者之力。夏秋之交。道出府下。因以致谢左右。庶竟万一。余冀顺序珍重。前即召擢。偶便专此上问。不宜。巩再拜。运勾奉议无党乡贤。二十七日。谨启。
(Seal: Zeng Gong Zai Bai)
Notably, the ink is applied to the reverse side of a printed Song-era book page, with faint traces of underlying text visible—a common recycling practice for paper at the time, adding a layer of historical texture to the artifact.
Significance as a Piece of Chinese Calligraphy
Zeng Gong's literary legacy towers in Chinese cultural history: he is one of the "Eight Masters of the Tang and Song" (唐宋八大家), alongside luminaries like Han Yu, Ouyang Xiu, and Wang Anshi. A pioneer of the Classical Prose Movement (古文运动), Zeng championed clear, argumentative prose over ornate styles, influencing generations of writers. His essays, such as those in Yuanfeng Leigao (元丰类稿), emphasize moral governance, historical insight, and simplicity—qualities that earned him posthumous acclaim from scholars like Zhu Xi.
Yet, for all his prolific writing, Zeng's calligraphy survives in just this single authenticated ink trace (zhuan shi mo ji, 传世墨迹). Even Zhu Xi, a devoted admirer born decades later, reportedly spent 50 years seeking a glimpse of Zeng's hand. This rarity elevates Jushi Tie to an unparalleled status: it is not merely a letter but the sole physical embodiment of Zeng's script, bridging his intellectual world with the tactile art of calligraphy.
Stylistically, the work exemplifies Song dynasty kaishu with influences from Tang masters Yan Zhenqing's Multi-Treasure Pagoda Stele (horizontal strokes fine, verticals robust) and Yang Ningstyle's Chive Flower Post (expressive, rugged vitality). Its structure echoes Cai Xiang (a near-contemporary), with elongated characters, vigorous yet refined strokes, and a fluid rhythm that conveys emotional depth—mirroring the letter's introspective tone. In Chinese art history, such personal missives (tie) are prized for their authenticity and immediacy, offering unfiltered glimpses into elite minds. Jushi Tie thus symbolizes the fusion of wenren (literati) ideals: literature, philosophy, and brushwork as one.
Its auction success underscores broader market trends. Previously sold at Christie's New York in 1996 for US$508,500 (to Belgian collectors Guy and Myriam Ullens) and Poly Auctions Beijing in 2009 for 108.64 million RMB (a then-record for Chinese calligraphy), the 2016 sale marked its third appearance, with a 45-fold appreciation over two decades. This trajectory reflects surging global demand for "national treasures" (guobao), especially Song-era works, amid China's cultural renaissance. Experts like Yi Guanghua (China Guardian) hail it as a "heart-pouring" artifact, its per-character value (over 1.6 million RMB) emblematic of calligraphy's role in preserving dynastic memory.
Condition and Authentication
The work is in exceptional condition for a millennium-old artifact, graded as "good" or "excellent" by auction standards. The paper remains intact and firm, with minimal foxing, creases, or insect damage typical of Song relics. Ink adhesion is strong, showing no significant fading or flaking, though the reverse-side printing subtly affects legibility in some areas— an intentional feature enhancing its authenticity rather than detracting. No restorations are noted in auction records, preserving its original patina.
Authentication is ironclad, rooted in meticulous provenance and scholarly scrutiny:
He Liangjun (何良俊)Ming (1368–1644)Early documented owner; collected Song letters for scholarly study.
Xiang Yuanbian (项元汴)MingAcquired He’s batch of 20+ Song missives; his seals affirm early Ming provenance.
An Yizhou (安仪周)Qing (1644–1911)Qing connoisseur; recorded in Mo Yuan Hui Guan (墨缘汇观), praising its vigor.
Zeng Yu (曾燠) & Wang Qisun (王芑孙)QingPassed through family lines; seals indicate careful stewardship.
Zhang Heng (张珩, "Zhang Congyu")Republican (1912–1949)Master appraiser; held by his family until mid-20th century export.
Zhang Wenkuan (张文魁)RepublicanBrief custodian; facilitated Western entry.
Guy & Myriam UllensModern (1996–2009)Belgian collectors; repatriated via 2009 Poly sale.
Seals from Xiang, An, and others are visible, forming a "chain of custody" unbroken since the Ming.
Modern validation includes:
- Xu Bangda (徐邦达): In Ancient Chinese Paintings and Calligraphy Seen and Verified (古书画过眼要录, 1987), he authenticated it as Zeng's hand via stylistic analysis and historical cross-references.
- Zhu Jiashu (朱家溍): Listed in Catalog of Famous Calligraphic Works Through the Ages (历代著录法书目, 1990s) as genuine.
- Yin Guanghua (尹光华): China Guardian's 2016 pre-sale essay (Initial Examination of Zeng Gong's Jushi Tie) dates it precisely to Yuanfeng 3 using internal references (e.g., the restored title "Fengyi," absent for over a century) and Zeng Gong Nianpu (曾巩年谱).
- Auction house forensics: UV/IR imaging and material analysis confirmed Song-era paper and ink.
1085-1087 Mi Fu colophon on a scroll by Su Shi
2018 SOLD for HK$ 460M by Christie's
Under the Song, the literati are philosophers and humanists who sometimes have the audacity to oppose imperial politics. Their supreme mode of expression is calligraphy, which conveys to their readers the firmness and rhythm of their thought.
In 1071 CE, Su Shi had been expelled from the capital, starting at the age of 34 a second career as a provincial servant with increasingly mediocre missions despite his immense talent. He died in 1101. His younger friend Mi Fu escaped political persecution by his reputation for eccentricity. They were the two best calligraphers in their lifetime.
A nine-character autograph message on a 28 x 9.5 cm sheet sent by Su Shi to the governor of a locality that he was leaving was sold for $ 8.2M by Sotheby's on September 19, 2013.
Graphic art is exceptional in their works. The movement of the artist's hand is the same as for calligraphy. The rare drawings by Su Shi translate emotions too deep to be expressed in words. Mi Fu will only paint in the last years of his life, mostly after Su Shi's death.
On November 26, 2018, Christie's sold for HK $ 460M a 26 x 50 cm ink on paper painted by Su Shi, lot 8008. This piece is extended by many colophons including an appreciation calligraphed by Mi Fu, and includes many seals. Please watch two videos shared by the auction house.
The image consists of two elements that join together : a leafless tree twisted into several undulations and a bulky rock. The dryness of the tree expresses the desolation of the artist in his exile while at the opposite edge on the left flank of the rock the sparse bamboos bring the hope of a new vitality.
Grokipedia input :
A rare purported authentic piece, Wood and Rock (also known as Frightened Wood and Strange Rock), depicts a gnarled tree and craggy rock in ink monochrome, symbolizing endurance amid adversity; this handscroll, dated to the 11th century, surfaced in auctions and is prized for its expressive minimalism, though debates persist on its genuineness due to the era's copying practices.
Grok reply to Grokipedia :
The description provided about Su Shi's "Wood and Rock" (also known as "Withered Tree and Strange Rock" in some translations) largely aligns with historical and art scholarship on the piece. This 11th-century handscroll, attributed to the Song dynasty polymath Su Shi (1037–1101), features a minimalist ink-on-paper depiction of a gnarled, leafless tree alongside a craggy rock, with emerging bamboo shoots adding subtle vitality. The composition, measuring approximately 26.3 x 50 cm for the painting itself (expanding to over 5 meters with colophons and mounting), embodies themes of resilience and harmony between nature and human experience, often interpreted as symbolizing endurance through life's adversities and the passage of time.
Su Shi, a renowned poet, calligrapher, statesman, and artist—often likened to a "Renaissance man" predating Leonardo da Vinci—pioneered a spontaneous, expressive style in literati painting that departed from the meticulous academic traditions of his era. This work exemplifies that innovation through its bold, impressionistic brushstrokes and minimalism, prioritizing personal expression over detailed realism. It includes colophons (inscriptions) by contemporaries like Liu Liangzuo (11th century) and the celebrated calligrapher Mi Fu (1051–1107), as well as later additions up to the 16th century, along with 41 collector's seals that trace its provenance.
The handscroll was originally a gift from Su Shi to a friend in Runzhou (modern Zhenjiang) and remained in private collections for centuries, including Japanese ownership from 1937 onward. It gained international attention when it surfaced at Christie's Hong Kong auction in November 2018, selling for HK$463.6 million (about US$59.2 million)—one of the highest prices for a classical Chinese painting at the time, though it fell short of breaking the overall Asian art record. As of mid-2025, it ranks among the top five most expensive Chinese scroll paintings ever auctioned.
Debates on its authenticity stem from the Song dynasty's prevalent copying practices, the scarcity of surviving Su Shi works (only one or two confirmed paintings exist, with another, "Bamboo and Rock," held by the National Art Museum of China), and its limited public exposure prior to the 2018 sale. Some scholars have questioned attribution based on stylistic analysis and historical documentation, with lingering skepticism noted around its undocumented periods in imperial collections. However, Christie's specialists and art historians, citing the colophons, seals, and brushwork consistency with Su Shi's known style, affirm its genuineness, emphasizing its role in illustrating the evolution of Chinese ink painting. The piece's cultural significance endures, reflecting Su Shi's profound influence on subsequent generations of artists.
In 1071 CE, Su Shi had been expelled from the capital, starting at the age of 34 a second career as a provincial servant with increasingly mediocre missions despite his immense talent. He died in 1101. His younger friend Mi Fu escaped political persecution by his reputation for eccentricity. They were the two best calligraphers in their lifetime.
A nine-character autograph message on a 28 x 9.5 cm sheet sent by Su Shi to the governor of a locality that he was leaving was sold for $ 8.2M by Sotheby's on September 19, 2013.
Graphic art is exceptional in their works. The movement of the artist's hand is the same as for calligraphy. The rare drawings by Su Shi translate emotions too deep to be expressed in words. Mi Fu will only paint in the last years of his life, mostly after Su Shi's death.
On November 26, 2018, Christie's sold for HK $ 460M a 26 x 50 cm ink on paper painted by Su Shi, lot 8008. This piece is extended by many colophons including an appreciation calligraphed by Mi Fu, and includes many seals. Please watch two videos shared by the auction house.
The image consists of two elements that join together : a leafless tree twisted into several undulations and a bulky rock. The dryness of the tree expresses the desolation of the artist in his exile while at the opposite edge on the left flank of the rock the sparse bamboos bring the hope of a new vitality.
Grokipedia input :
A rare purported authentic piece, Wood and Rock (also known as Frightened Wood and Strange Rock), depicts a gnarled tree and craggy rock in ink monochrome, symbolizing endurance amid adversity; this handscroll, dated to the 11th century, surfaced in auctions and is prized for its expressive minimalism, though debates persist on its genuineness due to the era's copying practices.
Grok reply to Grokipedia :
The description provided about Su Shi's "Wood and Rock" (also known as "Withered Tree and Strange Rock" in some translations) largely aligns with historical and art scholarship on the piece. This 11th-century handscroll, attributed to the Song dynasty polymath Su Shi (1037–1101), features a minimalist ink-on-paper depiction of a gnarled, leafless tree alongside a craggy rock, with emerging bamboo shoots adding subtle vitality. The composition, measuring approximately 26.3 x 50 cm for the painting itself (expanding to over 5 meters with colophons and mounting), embodies themes of resilience and harmony between nature and human experience, often interpreted as symbolizing endurance through life's adversities and the passage of time.
Su Shi, a renowned poet, calligrapher, statesman, and artist—often likened to a "Renaissance man" predating Leonardo da Vinci—pioneered a spontaneous, expressive style in literati painting that departed from the meticulous academic traditions of his era. This work exemplifies that innovation through its bold, impressionistic brushstrokes and minimalism, prioritizing personal expression over detailed realism. It includes colophons (inscriptions) by contemporaries like Liu Liangzuo (11th century) and the celebrated calligrapher Mi Fu (1051–1107), as well as later additions up to the 16th century, along with 41 collector's seals that trace its provenance.
The handscroll was originally a gift from Su Shi to a friend in Runzhou (modern Zhenjiang) and remained in private collections for centuries, including Japanese ownership from 1937 onward. It gained international attention when it surfaced at Christie's Hong Kong auction in November 2018, selling for HK$463.6 million (about US$59.2 million)—one of the highest prices for a classical Chinese painting at the time, though it fell short of breaking the overall Asian art record. As of mid-2025, it ranks among the top five most expensive Chinese scroll paintings ever auctioned.
Debates on its authenticity stem from the Song dynasty's prevalent copying practices, the scarcity of surviving Su Shi works (only one or two confirmed paintings exist, with another, "Bamboo and Rock," held by the National Art Museum of China), and its limited public exposure prior to the 2018 sale. Some scholars have questioned attribution based on stylistic analysis and historical documentation, with lingering skepticism noted around its undocumented periods in imperial collections. However, Christie's specialists and art historians, citing the colophons, seals, and brushwork consistency with Su Shi's known style, affirm its genuineness, emphasizing its role in illustrating the evolution of Chinese ink painting. The piece's cultural significance endures, reflecting Su Shi's profound influence on subsequent generations of artists.
Relationship Between Su Shi and Mi Fu
Su Shi (1037–1101, also known as Su Dongpo) and Mi Fu (1051–1107, also known as Mi Youren or Haiyue Jushi) were prominent figures of the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127), both renowned as scholar-officials, poets, calligraphers, and painters. They shared a deep personal friendship and intellectual bond, forged during their overlapping careers in government service and artistic circles in cities like Kaifeng and Yangzhou. This relationship is well-documented in historical records, such as Su Shi's letters and Mi Fu's writings, where they exchanged poems, critiqued each other's works, and collaborated on artistic projects. Mi Fu, in particular, admired Su Shi's innovative approach to painting, which emphasized expressive brushwork over realistic depiction—a style Mi Fu himself emulated and championed. Their friendship exemplifies the literati (wenren) ideal of the Song era, where art, poetry, and philosophy intertwined among elites. In the context of Wood and Rock, Mi Fu's colophon (appreciation) not only praises Su Shi's painting but also responds poetically to a rhyme initiated by another mutual acquaintance, Liu Liangzuo, underscoring their collaborative creative exchanges. Christie's catalog describes Mi Fu explicitly as "a close friend of Su Shi," highlighting how his inscription elevates the scroll as a testament to their shared legacy in advancing ink painting and calligraphy as vehicles for personal expression.
Estimated Date of the Painting and Colophon
The painting Wood and Rock by Su Shi depicts a gnarled, withered tree emerging from a fantastical, cloud-like rock formation, executed in bold, expressive ink washes on paper—a hallmark of Su Shi's late style symbolizing resilience amid adversity (reflecting his own political exiles). Based on the colophons and historical provenance detailed in the Christie's auction catalog:
Su Shi (1037–1101, also known as Su Dongpo) and Mi Fu (1051–1107, also known as Mi Youren or Haiyue Jushi) were prominent figures of the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127), both renowned as scholar-officials, poets, calligraphers, and painters. They shared a deep personal friendship and intellectual bond, forged during their overlapping careers in government service and artistic circles in cities like Kaifeng and Yangzhou. This relationship is well-documented in historical records, such as Su Shi's letters and Mi Fu's writings, where they exchanged poems, critiqued each other's works, and collaborated on artistic projects. Mi Fu, in particular, admired Su Shi's innovative approach to painting, which emphasized expressive brushwork over realistic depiction—a style Mi Fu himself emulated and championed. Their friendship exemplifies the literati (wenren) ideal of the Song era, where art, poetry, and philosophy intertwined among elites. In the context of Wood and Rock, Mi Fu's colophon (appreciation) not only praises Su Shi's painting but also responds poetically to a rhyme initiated by another mutual acquaintance, Liu Liangzuo, underscoring their collaborative creative exchanges. Christie's catalog describes Mi Fu explicitly as "a close friend of Su Shi," highlighting how his inscription elevates the scroll as a testament to their shared legacy in advancing ink painting and calligraphy as vehicles for personal expression.
Estimated Date of the Painting and Colophon
The painting Wood and Rock by Su Shi depicts a gnarled, withered tree emerging from a fantastical, cloud-like rock formation, executed in bold, expressive ink washes on paper—a hallmark of Su Shi's late style symbolizing resilience amid adversity (reflecting his own political exiles). Based on the colophons and historical provenance detailed in the Christie's auction catalog:
- Date of the Painting: Estimated to 1083–1085 CE. This is inferred from the colophon by Liu Liangzuo (11th century, active ca. 1070s–1090s), a contemporary mutual friend of Su Shi and Mi Fu. Liu describes the recipient, "Master Feng" (a Taoist scholar in Runzhou/Zhenjiang), as being in his seventies with "dark beard and hair ever glowing," indicating advanced age and a long acquaintance. Liu notes it has been "thirty years" since Master Feng resigned his post to pursue Taoism, placing the gift and painting around the early 1080s. Su Shi was exiled to Huangzhou (Hubei) from 1080–1084, a period of intense creative output, aligning with the work's stylistic maturity and thematic depth.
- Date of Mi Fu's Colophon (Appreciation): Estimated to 1085–1087 CE. Mi Fu's inscription directly follows Liu Liangzuo's in the handscroll, responding to the same poetic rhyme with his own verses (beginning "Fu, following the rhyme: Who can say what it is like at the age of forty?"). This suggests it was added shortly after Liu's, during a brief window when the scroll circulated among their circle in the mid-1080s. Mi Fu was then in his mid-30s, serving as an official in Yangzhou (near Runzhou), making such an exchange feasible. Later colophons (e.g., by Yu Xilu in 1333 and Guo Chang in 1614) reference Mi Fu's addition as contemporaneous with the painting, reinforcing this timeline.
Christie’s Announces 1000-year-old $50m Su Shi Scroll https://t.co/eVdovdYFyr pic.twitter.com/XpeTTOdBby
— Art Market Monitor (@artmarket) August 30, 2018
1095 Di Zhu Ming by Huang Tinjian
2010 SOLD for RMB 436M by Poly
A scroll of paper from Song period was sold for RMB 436M by Poly on June 3, 2010. It is completely covered with characters drawn in ink by Huang Tingjian, one of the most famous master calligraphers of his time. It is a fine example of his art consisting of semi-cursive letters in an energetic and accentuated style. Depending on location, this text includes from 4 to 15 characters within the height.
Completed around 1095 CE, this scroll is 37 cm high with a length exceeding 8 m, 15 m including the colohons contains 600 characters of which some examples are presented in the article shared by China Daily. Titled Di Zhu Ming, it is a copy of a Tang poem. It includes a small portrait of the calligrapher artist.
Significance as a Complete Copy of a Tang Poem
Huang Tingjian's Dizhuming handscroll, created around 1095 during the Northern Song dynasty, transcribes a complete Tang dynasty poem titled Di Zhu Ming (likely referring to a work evoking themes of "emperor's bamboo inscription" or similar, though exact attribution varies in sources; it draws from Tang poetic traditions emphasizing nature, impermanence, and scholarly reflection). This is not a mere excerpt but a full, verbatim reproduction spanning approximately 600 characters, preserving the original Tang text's structure, rhythm, and imagery in semi-cursive (running) script. Its cultural weight lies in bridging Tang and Song literary worlds: the Tang era (618–907) represented the pinnacle of classical Chinese poetry, with masters like Li Bai and Du Fu setting enduring standards. By faithfully copying and thus revitalizing a Tang poem, Huang elevated it as a scholarly act of homage and transmission, aligning with Song literati's obsession with antiquity amid political turmoil (Huang himself faced exile in 1095 for his reformist associations). This "complete copy" underscores themes of cultural continuity—echoing Tang motifs of exile and resilience—while subtly critiquing Song court politics through the poem's undertones of loss and endurance. In the broader Song context, such transcriptions fueled the Jiangxi School of Poetry, which Huang founded, emphasizing "allusion and transformation" (bianfa) of Tang sources to innovate without rupture. The scroll's 2010 Poly Auction sale for RMB 436.5 million ($64 million USD) highlighted its role in modern cultural repatriation, symbolizing China's reclamation of Tang-Song heritage from Japanese collections.
Significance in Its Own Right as a Song Handscroll of Calligraphy
Beyond its role as a conduit for Tang poetry, Dizhuming stands as an autonomous masterpiece of Song calligraphy, exemplifying Huang's innovative "wild cursive" style influenced by Tang monk Huaisu (737–799) and his mentor Su Shi. Measuring about 8–10 meters in length (with colophons extending it to 15 meters), the handscroll format—unrolled sequentially for intimate viewing—embodies Song literati ideals of spontaneity (ziran) and self-expression, where calligraphy becomes "a picture of the mind" (xintu). Huang's script features bold, wave-like strokes, rhythmic ink density variations (dry to moist), and energetic flourishes that convey moral vigor and emotional depth, diverging from Tang's formal regularity toward Song's introspective dynamism. As one of the "Four Masters of Song Calligraphy" (with Su Shi, Mi Fu, and Cai Xiang), Huang's work here marks a stylistic evolution in his later years: more fluid and "transformed" than his earlier pieces, reflecting his exile's philosophical turn toward Chan Buddhist detachment. Its 600 characters pulse with vitality, turning transcription into creation—each stroke a meditation on impermanence, mirroring the poem's themes. This handscroll influenced subsequent generations, inspiring Ming-Qing collectors and modern auctions, where it set records not just for price but for embodying Song's shift from imperial grandeur to personal artistry. In essence, Dizhuming is a performative artifact: a scroll that, when unrolled, unfolds Huang's inner world, making it a cornerstone of Chinese calligraphy's expressive tradition.
Condition and Authentication of the Handscroll
The Dizhuming scroll is in remarkably well-preserved condition for a 900-year-old artifact, with minimal fading, tears, or insect damage, thanks to its provenance in protected Japanese and Taiwanese collections post-Song era. The core calligraphy remains vibrant, with original ink tones intact and paper supple, though age-related discoloration appears in mounting silk. Colophons—over 20 inscriptions from Song to Qing connoisseurs, including a Song emperor's seal—add historical layers but introduce minor repairs (e.g., silk reinforcements in the 18th century). Post-2010 auction conservation by Poly International likely involved pH-neutral mounting to stabilize it further.
Authentication has been rigorous and layered. Initially doubted during the Qing Qianlong era (1735–1796) as a "counterfeit" due to its atypical style (bolder than Huang's standard works), it was reaffirmed in the 20th century by Taiwanese scholar and calligrapher Tuo Zhonghua, who identified stylistic hallmarks like Huang's signature "rippling" horizontals and pressure variations, dating it precisely to 1095 via historical records of Huang's exile. Provenance traces to Song imperial collections, then Japanese temples (e.g., a private Kyoto museum until the 1980s), and a Taiwanese collector before the 2010 sale. Poly Auction's pre-sale experts, including infrared analysis and comparative studies against authenticated Huang works (e.g., Poem on the Hall of Pines and Wind at the National Palace Museum, Taipei), confirmed genuineness. No major disputes persist today; it's hailed as Huang's longest surviving regular-script scroll, with its $64 million price reflecting unassailable scholarly consensus.
Completed around 1095 CE, this scroll is 37 cm high with a length exceeding 8 m, 15 m including the colohons contains 600 characters of which some examples are presented in the article shared by China Daily. Titled Di Zhu Ming, it is a copy of a Tang poem. It includes a small portrait of the calligrapher artist.
Significance as a Complete Copy of a Tang Poem
Huang Tingjian's Dizhuming handscroll, created around 1095 during the Northern Song dynasty, transcribes a complete Tang dynasty poem titled Di Zhu Ming (likely referring to a work evoking themes of "emperor's bamboo inscription" or similar, though exact attribution varies in sources; it draws from Tang poetic traditions emphasizing nature, impermanence, and scholarly reflection). This is not a mere excerpt but a full, verbatim reproduction spanning approximately 600 characters, preserving the original Tang text's structure, rhythm, and imagery in semi-cursive (running) script. Its cultural weight lies in bridging Tang and Song literary worlds: the Tang era (618–907) represented the pinnacle of classical Chinese poetry, with masters like Li Bai and Du Fu setting enduring standards. By faithfully copying and thus revitalizing a Tang poem, Huang elevated it as a scholarly act of homage and transmission, aligning with Song literati's obsession with antiquity amid political turmoil (Huang himself faced exile in 1095 for his reformist associations). This "complete copy" underscores themes of cultural continuity—echoing Tang motifs of exile and resilience—while subtly critiquing Song court politics through the poem's undertones of loss and endurance. In the broader Song context, such transcriptions fueled the Jiangxi School of Poetry, which Huang founded, emphasizing "allusion and transformation" (bianfa) of Tang sources to innovate without rupture. The scroll's 2010 Poly Auction sale for RMB 436.5 million ($64 million USD) highlighted its role in modern cultural repatriation, symbolizing China's reclamation of Tang-Song heritage from Japanese collections.
Significance in Its Own Right as a Song Handscroll of Calligraphy
Beyond its role as a conduit for Tang poetry, Dizhuming stands as an autonomous masterpiece of Song calligraphy, exemplifying Huang's innovative "wild cursive" style influenced by Tang monk Huaisu (737–799) and his mentor Su Shi. Measuring about 8–10 meters in length (with colophons extending it to 15 meters), the handscroll format—unrolled sequentially for intimate viewing—embodies Song literati ideals of spontaneity (ziran) and self-expression, where calligraphy becomes "a picture of the mind" (xintu). Huang's script features bold, wave-like strokes, rhythmic ink density variations (dry to moist), and energetic flourishes that convey moral vigor and emotional depth, diverging from Tang's formal regularity toward Song's introspective dynamism. As one of the "Four Masters of Song Calligraphy" (with Su Shi, Mi Fu, and Cai Xiang), Huang's work here marks a stylistic evolution in his later years: more fluid and "transformed" than his earlier pieces, reflecting his exile's philosophical turn toward Chan Buddhist detachment. Its 600 characters pulse with vitality, turning transcription into creation—each stroke a meditation on impermanence, mirroring the poem's themes. This handscroll influenced subsequent generations, inspiring Ming-Qing collectors and modern auctions, where it set records not just for price but for embodying Song's shift from imperial grandeur to personal artistry. In essence, Dizhuming is a performative artifact: a scroll that, when unrolled, unfolds Huang's inner world, making it a cornerstone of Chinese calligraphy's expressive tradition.
Condition and Authentication of the Handscroll
The Dizhuming scroll is in remarkably well-preserved condition for a 900-year-old artifact, with minimal fading, tears, or insect damage, thanks to its provenance in protected Japanese and Taiwanese collections post-Song era. The core calligraphy remains vibrant, with original ink tones intact and paper supple, though age-related discoloration appears in mounting silk. Colophons—over 20 inscriptions from Song to Qing connoisseurs, including a Song emperor's seal—add historical layers but introduce minor repairs (e.g., silk reinforcements in the 18th century). Post-2010 auction conservation by Poly International likely involved pH-neutral mounting to stabilize it further.
Authentication has been rigorous and layered. Initially doubted during the Qing Qianlong era (1735–1796) as a "counterfeit" due to its atypical style (bolder than Huang's standard works), it was reaffirmed in the 20th century by Taiwanese scholar and calligrapher Tuo Zhonghua, who identified stylistic hallmarks like Huang's signature "rippling" horizontals and pressure variations, dating it precisely to 1095 via historical records of Huang's exile. Provenance traces to Song imperial collections, then Japanese temples (e.g., a private Kyoto museum until the 1980s), and a Taiwanese collector before the 2010 sale. Poly Auction's pre-sale experts, including infrared analysis and comparative studies against authenticated Huang works (e.g., Poem on the Hall of Pines and Wind at the National Palace Museum, Taipei), confirmed genuineness. No major disputes persist today; it's hailed as Huang's longest surviving regular-script scroll, with its $64 million price reflecting unassailable scholarly consensus.
ZHAO MENGFU
1
early 1280s Letters
2019 SOLD for RMB 270M by China Guardian
On November 19, 2019, China Guardian sold a lot of two autograph letters by Zhao for RMB 270M. This set is illustrated in the press release shared after the sale by the auction house.
In one of the two letters, Zhao acknowledges the ambivalence of his political position and the embarrassment it arouses among his friends. Of course, he shows himself in his best light and considers that his attitude is courageous. He seems to have really wanted to reconcile the interests of the fallen Song and of their Mongol successors.
The second letter in this lot describes his support and sympathy for his friends in that time of economic difficulty and his feeling of loneliness during his stay in the capital city.
Grok summary from an Arthitparade post :
Compare the calligraphic style of these letters with his Huang Ting Jing scroll calligraphed in 1302, sold by Poly on July 5, 2023, lot 817.
Overview of the Works and Their Dating
Zhao Mengfu (1254–1322), a pivotal Yuan dynasty calligrapher, is renowned for reviving archaic styles while infusing them with literati elegance. The two autograph letters in question—sold as a pair at China Guardian in Beijing on November 19, 2019, for RMB 267.4 million (approximately $38.2 million USD)—are personal missives addressed to his friend Guo Youzhi. One letter recounts Zhao's internal conflict over serving the Yuan court after the fall of the Southern Song in 1279, capturing a moment of political and emotional turmoil likely in the early 1280s (post-1279, during his initial reluctance to accept office). The other addresses a conflict of interest among friends, also datable to his early career phase around the same period. These letters exemplify Zhao's running-cursive (xingshu) script in a spontaneous, epistolary format.
In contrast, the Huang Ting Jing (Scripture of the Yellow Court), a Daoist text on inner alchemy and meditation, is a meticulously executed transcription dated to 1302. This handscroll, executed in small seal script (xiaozhuan), fetched RMB 181 million at Poly Auction Beijing on July 5, 2023 (lot 817). It represents Zhao's mature phase, blending Song literati refinement with archaic restraint. The roughly 20-year gap between the letters (ca. early 1280s) and the Huang Ting Jing (1302) allows us to trace his stylistic evolution from youthful expressiveness to refined antiquity.
Key Stylistic Comparison
Zhao's calligraphy across these works reflects his broader philosophy: emulating Jin and Tang masters (e.g., Wang Xizhi for fluidity, Li Yong for vigor) while adapting to context—personal vs. sacred. Below is a structured comparison across core elements of Chinese calligraphy (brushwork, structure, rhythm, and overall aesthetic), drawing on art historical analyses of his oeuvre.
Script Type
Letters : Xingshu (running-cursive): Fluid, semi-connected strokes blending kai (regular) and cao (cursive) elements for speed and intimacy.
Huang Ting Jing : Xiaozhuan (small seal): Archaic, uniform, and block-like characters derived from oracle bone and bronze inscriptions, with rounded, pictorial forms.
Evolution : Letters prioritize narrative flow suited to personal correspondence; Huang Ting Jing shifts to ritualistic uniformity for a sacred text, showing Zhao's growing interest in antiquity (guwen) over Song-era naturalism. This marks his maturation from Song influences to deliberate archaism.
Brushwork (Bifa)
Letters : Vigorous and varied: Bold, angular turns with "flying white" (feibai) effects—white paper peeking through dry brush—evoking emotional turbulence. Strokes are uneven in pressure, with sharp pivots mimicking spoken urgency. Ink is dense to dry, creating dynamic contrasts.
Huang Ting Jing : Restrained and even: Smooth, continuous lines with minimal variation; brush pressure is consistent, emphasizing taut, rounded contours. Ink is uniform (mostly dry), avoiding dramatic shifts for meditative harmony.
Evolution : Early vigor in letters reflects Zhao's youth and inner conflict (e.g., post-Song fall ambivalence); by 1302, brushwork becomes "bone-strengthened" (gufu)—firmer and more controlled—aligning with his Yuan court role and Daoist pursuits, reducing the "wild horse" energy for poised elegance.
Character Structure (Gongjiao)
Letters : Loose and expressive: Characters tilt variably, with elongated horizontals and compressed verticals; spacing is irregular, fostering a conversational rhythm. Influenced by Wang Xizhi's Jin dynamism but infused with personal "bone" (gu) for resilience.
Huang Ting Jing : Compact and symmetrical: Tadpole-like forms (rounded heads, tapering tails) with precise alignment; even density creates a grid-like balance, echoing Han dynasty steles.
Evolution : Letters' asymmetry conveys spontaneity and human frailty; Huang Ting Jing's rigidity embodies Daoist cosmology (e.g., balanced yin-yang), evidencing Zhao's evolution toward structural purity, critiqued by some contemporaries as "lacking gallant spirit" but praised for scholarly depth.
Rhythm and Composition (Qimao & Yunlü)
Letters : Lively and undulating: Horizontal flow with accelerating tempos, like a "galloping horse" (per Mi Fu's analogies); dense clusters alternate with open breaths, mirroring epistolary pauses. Overall: Intimate, 29.7 x 27.8 cm format per leaf, mounted as scrolls.
Huang Ting Jing : Serene and measured: Slow, wave-like cadence with subtle echoes between lines; sparse layout enhances readability of the 1,700+ characters, evoking meditative recitation. Overall: Handscroll format (ca. 30 cm wide), unfolding for contemplative viewing.
Evolution : The letters' rhythmic "ups and downs" capture early-career passion; Huang Ting Jing adopts a "cloud-and-mist" (yunlong) haze—subtle interconnections—for spiritual immersion, showing 20 years of refinement from emotional release to transcendent calm.
Ink and Aesthetic Tone
Letters : Varied tonality: From saturated blacks to pale grays, with "silk threads" (sixian) for tensile strength; aesthetic is literati-romantic, blending Song vitality with Jin grace.
Huang Ting Jing : Monochromatic subtlety: Fine gradations via layered dry brush; aesthetic is archaic-mystical, prioritizing "spirit resonance" (qiyun) over ornament.
Evolution : Letters' ink drama underscores personal stakes; Huang Ting Jing's subtlety reflects Zhao's later synthesis of Song expressionism and Yuan revivalism, influencing Ming-Qing masters like Dong Qichang.
Broader Context and Significance
The letters, as early works, showcase Zhao's transitional style: a Song loyalist's raw emotion channeled through cursive freedom, possibly echoing his teacher Gaozong's fluidity but with bolder, Mongol-inflected vigor. By 1302, in Huang Ting Jing, he achieves his signature "Zhao Ti" (Zhao style)—a harmonious revival of ancient scripts that "washed away the ills of Yan and Liu" (Tang regulars), as contemporaries noted. This evolution mirrors his life: from reluctant courtier to esteemed scholar-official, using calligraphy to reconcile heritage and service.
Art market data underscores their rarity: The letters' 2019 sale highlighted epistolary works' premium (top Yuan result that year), while Huang Ting Jing's 2023 hammer price affirmed small-script masterpieces' allure amid fewer imperial survivals. For deeper study, consult Shane McCausland's Zhao Mengfu: Chinese Painter and Calligrapher (2010), which analyzes these shifts through colophons and rubbings.
In one of the two letters, Zhao acknowledges the ambivalence of his political position and the embarrassment it arouses among his friends. Of course, he shows himself in his best light and considers that his attitude is courageous. He seems to have really wanted to reconcile the interests of the fallen Song and of their Mongol successors.
The second letter in this lot describes his support and sympathy for his friends in that time of economic difficulty and his feeling of loneliness during his stay in the capital city.
Grok summary from an Arthitparade post :
- Zhao Mengfu (1254-1322), a Yuan Dynasty master blending Song literati style with Mongol influences, authored these two autograph letters reflecting personal and political tensions post-Southern Song fall; they sold for RMB 270M (about $38M USD) at China Guardian in 2019, one of the decade's top Chinese art auctions.
- The transaction highlights calligraphy's enduring prestige in the Chinese market, where 2019 saw 66,106 lots sold but fewer high-quality imperial-era works, driving premiums for authenticated rarities like these, per Artprice data.
- ArtHitParade's cataloging via auction results positions this as entry #88 in their 1000-1400 CE timeline, using market values to quantify historical impact and update narratives on overlooked artifacts.
Compare the calligraphic style of these letters with his Huang Ting Jing scroll calligraphed in 1302, sold by Poly on July 5, 2023, lot 817.
Overview of the Works and Their Dating
Zhao Mengfu (1254–1322), a pivotal Yuan dynasty calligrapher, is renowned for reviving archaic styles while infusing them with literati elegance. The two autograph letters in question—sold as a pair at China Guardian in Beijing on November 19, 2019, for RMB 267.4 million (approximately $38.2 million USD)—are personal missives addressed to his friend Guo Youzhi. One letter recounts Zhao's internal conflict over serving the Yuan court after the fall of the Southern Song in 1279, capturing a moment of political and emotional turmoil likely in the early 1280s (post-1279, during his initial reluctance to accept office). The other addresses a conflict of interest among friends, also datable to his early career phase around the same period. These letters exemplify Zhao's running-cursive (xingshu) script in a spontaneous, epistolary format.
In contrast, the Huang Ting Jing (Scripture of the Yellow Court), a Daoist text on inner alchemy and meditation, is a meticulously executed transcription dated to 1302. This handscroll, executed in small seal script (xiaozhuan), fetched RMB 181 million at Poly Auction Beijing on July 5, 2023 (lot 817). It represents Zhao's mature phase, blending Song literati refinement with archaic restraint. The roughly 20-year gap between the letters (ca. early 1280s) and the Huang Ting Jing (1302) allows us to trace his stylistic evolution from youthful expressiveness to refined antiquity.
Key Stylistic Comparison
Zhao's calligraphy across these works reflects his broader philosophy: emulating Jin and Tang masters (e.g., Wang Xizhi for fluidity, Li Yong for vigor) while adapting to context—personal vs. sacred. Below is a structured comparison across core elements of Chinese calligraphy (brushwork, structure, rhythm, and overall aesthetic), drawing on art historical analyses of his oeuvre.
Script Type
Letters : Xingshu (running-cursive): Fluid, semi-connected strokes blending kai (regular) and cao (cursive) elements for speed and intimacy.
Huang Ting Jing : Xiaozhuan (small seal): Archaic, uniform, and block-like characters derived from oracle bone and bronze inscriptions, with rounded, pictorial forms.
Evolution : Letters prioritize narrative flow suited to personal correspondence; Huang Ting Jing shifts to ritualistic uniformity for a sacred text, showing Zhao's growing interest in antiquity (guwen) over Song-era naturalism. This marks his maturation from Song influences to deliberate archaism.
Brushwork (Bifa)
Letters : Vigorous and varied: Bold, angular turns with "flying white" (feibai) effects—white paper peeking through dry brush—evoking emotional turbulence. Strokes are uneven in pressure, with sharp pivots mimicking spoken urgency. Ink is dense to dry, creating dynamic contrasts.
Huang Ting Jing : Restrained and even: Smooth, continuous lines with minimal variation; brush pressure is consistent, emphasizing taut, rounded contours. Ink is uniform (mostly dry), avoiding dramatic shifts for meditative harmony.
Evolution : Early vigor in letters reflects Zhao's youth and inner conflict (e.g., post-Song fall ambivalence); by 1302, brushwork becomes "bone-strengthened" (gufu)—firmer and more controlled—aligning with his Yuan court role and Daoist pursuits, reducing the "wild horse" energy for poised elegance.
Character Structure (Gongjiao)
Letters : Loose and expressive: Characters tilt variably, with elongated horizontals and compressed verticals; spacing is irregular, fostering a conversational rhythm. Influenced by Wang Xizhi's Jin dynamism but infused with personal "bone" (gu) for resilience.
Huang Ting Jing : Compact and symmetrical: Tadpole-like forms (rounded heads, tapering tails) with precise alignment; even density creates a grid-like balance, echoing Han dynasty steles.
Evolution : Letters' asymmetry conveys spontaneity and human frailty; Huang Ting Jing's rigidity embodies Daoist cosmology (e.g., balanced yin-yang), evidencing Zhao's evolution toward structural purity, critiqued by some contemporaries as "lacking gallant spirit" but praised for scholarly depth.
Rhythm and Composition (Qimao & Yunlü)
Letters : Lively and undulating: Horizontal flow with accelerating tempos, like a "galloping horse" (per Mi Fu's analogies); dense clusters alternate with open breaths, mirroring epistolary pauses. Overall: Intimate, 29.7 x 27.8 cm format per leaf, mounted as scrolls.
Huang Ting Jing : Serene and measured: Slow, wave-like cadence with subtle echoes between lines; sparse layout enhances readability of the 1,700+ characters, evoking meditative recitation. Overall: Handscroll format (ca. 30 cm wide), unfolding for contemplative viewing.
Evolution : The letters' rhythmic "ups and downs" capture early-career passion; Huang Ting Jing adopts a "cloud-and-mist" (yunlong) haze—subtle interconnections—for spiritual immersion, showing 20 years of refinement from emotional release to transcendent calm.
Ink and Aesthetic Tone
Letters : Varied tonality: From saturated blacks to pale grays, with "silk threads" (sixian) for tensile strength; aesthetic is literati-romantic, blending Song vitality with Jin grace.
Huang Ting Jing : Monochromatic subtlety: Fine gradations via layered dry brush; aesthetic is archaic-mystical, prioritizing "spirit resonance" (qiyun) over ornament.
Evolution : Letters' ink drama underscores personal stakes; Huang Ting Jing's subtlety reflects Zhao's later synthesis of Song expressionism and Yuan revivalism, influencing Ming-Qing masters like Dong Qichang.
Broader Context and Significance
The letters, as early works, showcase Zhao's transitional style: a Song loyalist's raw emotion channeled through cursive freedom, possibly echoing his teacher Gaozong's fluidity but with bolder, Mongol-inflected vigor. By 1302, in Huang Ting Jing, he achieves his signature "Zhao Ti" (Zhao style)—a harmonious revival of ancient scripts that "washed away the ills of Yan and Liu" (Tang regulars), as contemporaries noted. This evolution mirrors his life: from reluctant courtier to esteemed scholar-official, using calligraphy to reconcile heritage and service.
Art market data underscores their rarity: The letters' 2019 sale highlighted epistolary works' premium (top Yuan result that year), while Huang Ting Jing's 2023 hammer price affirmed small-script masterpieces' allure amid fewer imperial survivals. For deeper study, consult Shane McCausland's Zhao Mengfu: Chinese Painter and Calligrapher (2010), which analyzes these shifts through colophons and rubbings.
2
1302 Huang Ting Jing
2023 SOLD for RMB 180M by Poly
Active after the fall of the Southern Song in 1279 CE, Zhao Mengfu is a prince-artist who belongs to the fallen dynasty. Poet, jurist, painter and calligrapher, he combines the strict clarity of regular calligraphy with the expressiveness of semi-cursive calligraphy. His allegiance to the Yuan was severely criticized in period.
His calligraphy writing gradually evolves to take example from the two supreme masters of the Jin era, Wang Xizhi and Wang Xianzhi, who had established the perfect synthesis of the various styles 950 years earlier. Zhao's writing is considered one of the best models of regular script.
A handscroll in ink on paper was signed and dated in the 6th year of the second period of the Chenzong emperor, 1302 CE. It is made in four parts from introduction to postscript. The height is 27.5 to 32 cm and the overall length is 450 cm.
It is a copy of the Huang Ting Jing as calligraphed by Wang Xizhi and amended by the small regular style of Tang period calligrapher Zhong Shaojing. This Taoist text deals with achieving health preservation and immortality by rinsing the body, breathing, fasting and chanting sutras. The brushwork is meticulous, sharp and fast.
The artist added an emotional comment on this piece 19 years later, 80 days before his death.
It was sold for RMB 180M by Poly on July 5, 2023, lot 817 illustrated in the post sale report shared by The Value.
His calligraphy writing gradually evolves to take example from the two supreme masters of the Jin era, Wang Xizhi and Wang Xianzhi, who had established the perfect synthesis of the various styles 950 years earlier. Zhao's writing is considered one of the best models of regular script.
A handscroll in ink on paper was signed and dated in the 6th year of the second period of the Chenzong emperor, 1302 CE. It is made in four parts from introduction to postscript. The height is 27.5 to 32 cm and the overall length is 450 cm.
It is a copy of the Huang Ting Jing as calligraphed by Wang Xizhi and amended by the small regular style of Tang period calligrapher Zhong Shaojing. This Taoist text deals with achieving health preservation and immortality by rinsing the body, breathing, fasting and chanting sutras. The brushwork is meticulous, sharp and fast.
The artist added an emotional comment on this piece 19 years later, 80 days before his death.
It was sold for RMB 180M by Poly on July 5, 2023, lot 817 illustrated in the post sale report shared by The Value.
3
Heart Sutra
2017 SOLD for RMB 190M by Poly
Zhao Mengfu is a Buddhist. The Heart Sutra is perfect for serving as a model for two reasons. It is the shortest of the Sutras and its most classic version fits in five or six sheets. It is especially appreciated in China because its oldest known version is in Chinese language.
Several pieces calligraphed by Zhao are known. After a long career, he dies in 1322 CE at the age of 68, and these works cannot be dated with precision. An ancient legend shows the artist copying a Heart Sutra to exchange it with a monk for tea.
A Heart Sutra by Zhao Mengfu was sold for RMB 190M by Poly on December 17, 2017, lot 3535. This piece is a five-sheet 28.6 x 12 cm album, with no drawing added. The five sheets are illustrated twice in the post-sale article by The Value.
The Heart Sutra (full title: Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya or 般若波罗蜜多心经) hand-copied by Zhao Mengfu (趙孟頫, 1254–1322) in running-regular script (行楷) is a celebrated work of Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) calligraphy. This specific piece, a five-leaf album (册页, five openings/sheets) measuring approximately 28.6 × 11.9–12 cm, was sold at Beijing Poly Auction on December 17, 2017, as lot 3535 in their "仰之弥高—Chinese Ancient Calligraphy and Painting Night Sale." It achieved a hammer price of RMB 166 million, selling for RMB 190.9 million (about USD 28–29 million at the time) with buyer's premium, setting a new world auction record for Zhao Mengfu's works at that point. The buyer was reportedly the Tianqing Museum (甘肃天庆博物馆) in Gansu.
The artwork bears a frontispiece title by Yuan Kexun (寒云, son of Yuan Shikai) and has an illustrious provenance, passing through notable collectors including Xiang Yuanbian (项元汴, Ming dynasty), members of the Qing imperial clan (e.g., Aisin Gioro Mianyi, Prince Gong Yixin), Wang Yirong, Yuan Kexun, Tan Tianqi, Zhang Jingjiang, and others.
Significance in the History of Yuan Buddhist Art
Zhao Mengfu stands as one of the most influential figures in Chinese art history, particularly for reviving and synthesizing classical calligraphic traditions from the Jin and Tang dynasties (especially Wang Xizhi and Yan Zhenqing) while serving under the Mongol Yuan court. As a descendant of the Southern Song imperial family who chose to collaborate with the new regime, his art embodies the cultural negotiation between Han Chinese literati traditions and Mongol rule.
Several pieces calligraphed by Zhao are known. After a long career, he dies in 1322 CE at the age of 68, and these works cannot be dated with precision. An ancient legend shows the artist copying a Heart Sutra to exchange it with a monk for tea.
A Heart Sutra by Zhao Mengfu was sold for RMB 190M by Poly on December 17, 2017, lot 3535. This piece is a five-sheet 28.6 x 12 cm album, with no drawing added. The five sheets are illustrated twice in the post-sale article by The Value.
The Heart Sutra (full title: Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya or 般若波罗蜜多心经) hand-copied by Zhao Mengfu (趙孟頫, 1254–1322) in running-regular script (行楷) is a celebrated work of Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) calligraphy. This specific piece, a five-leaf album (册页, five openings/sheets) measuring approximately 28.6 × 11.9–12 cm, was sold at Beijing Poly Auction on December 17, 2017, as lot 3535 in their "仰之弥高—Chinese Ancient Calligraphy and Painting Night Sale." It achieved a hammer price of RMB 166 million, selling for RMB 190.9 million (about USD 28–29 million at the time) with buyer's premium, setting a new world auction record for Zhao Mengfu's works at that point. The buyer was reportedly the Tianqing Museum (甘肃天庆博物馆) in Gansu.
The artwork bears a frontispiece title by Yuan Kexun (寒云, son of Yuan Shikai) and has an illustrious provenance, passing through notable collectors including Xiang Yuanbian (项元汴, Ming dynasty), members of the Qing imperial clan (e.g., Aisin Gioro Mianyi, Prince Gong Yixin), Wang Yirong, Yuan Kexun, Tan Tianqi, Zhang Jingjiang, and others.
Significance in the History of Yuan Buddhist Art
Zhao Mengfu stands as one of the most influential figures in Chinese art history, particularly for reviving and synthesizing classical calligraphic traditions from the Jin and Tang dynasties (especially Wang Xizhi and Yan Zhenqing) while serving under the Mongol Yuan court. As a descendant of the Southern Song imperial family who chose to collaborate with the new regime, his art embodies the cultural negotiation between Han Chinese literati traditions and Mongol rule.
- Calligraphic Mastery and Revival: Zhao's calligraphy is renowned for its elegance, balance, structure, and mellow fluidity. This Heart Sutra exemplifies his mature running-regular script, blending precision with expressive freedom. In Yuan times, when many elite artists turned to calligraphy as a personal and spiritual medium (amid political constraints), Zhao's work helped reestablish "orthodox" (正统) standards that influenced later Ming and Qing calligraphers.
- Buddhist Context and Patronage: Zhao was a devout Buddhist (influenced by Chan and other schools), and he transcribed Buddhist texts multiple times. The Heart Sutra—Mahayana Buddhism's shortest yet most profound scripture on emptiness (śūnyatā), wisdom (prajñā), and the essence of enlightenment—is one of the most copied texts in East Asian Buddhism. Zhao's versions became iconic models for practitioners and artists. A famous anecdote (illustrated in later Ming paintings by Qiu Ying and others) tells of Zhao copying the Heart Sutra to exchange for tea with a priest, highlighting the intersection of art, devotion, and everyday exchange. His Buddhist-themed works (including sutra copies, paintings of Śākyamuni, Bodhidharma, and monks) reflect the flourishing of Buddhist art under Yuan patronage, where Tibetan Esoteric influences mixed with Chinese traditions, though this piece is purely calligraphic (no added illustrations or paintings).
- Broader Role in Yuan Buddhist Art: Yuan dynasty Buddhist art emphasized devotion, merit-making through copying sutras, and imperial support for temples. Zhao's high-status transcriptions elevated calligraphy as a devotional act and artistic form. His Heart Sutra copies (several exist, but this 2017-auctioned one is particularly prized for quality and provenance) served as exemplary models—short, classic, and spiritually potent—making them ideal for study and replication. They bridge literati art with religious practice, showing how elite scholars contributed to Buddhist visual and textual culture during a period of cosmopolitanism and syncretism.
1361 Calligraphy by Rao Jie
2025 SOLD for HK$ 250M by Sotheby's
Rao Jie was a writer and calligrapher during the Yuan-Ming transition. He called himself Huagai Mountain Woodcutter, Drunken Woodcutter, Awakened Woodcutter, Awakened Old Man, Drunk Old Man and Zixuan Cave Woodcutter.
A handscroll in ink on paper 30 x 600 cm by Rao Jie transcribes in a dynamic cursive script two classic Chinese essays, a farewell to Meng Dongye by Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan’s Zi Ren Zhuan. An inscription provides the date 'Xinchou', which means the 21st year of Zhizheng matching 1361 CE, when Rao fled to Suzhou to avoid the chaos after serving as the vice-chancellor of Huainan Province.
100 seals and several colophons attest of the admiration of readers for several centuries for the unrestrained freedom, boldness, rhythm and vitality of the brushstroke. The Qianlong emperor appreciated its "divinely transmitted purity" and had the work recorded in the Shiqu Baoji art repertory.
This manuscript resurfaces in a nearly time capsule condition after a century in oblivion. It was sold for HK $ 250M from a lower estimate of HK $ 10M by Sotheby's on April 10, 2025, lot 2528. Please watch the video shared by the auction house.
A handscroll in ink on paper 30 x 600 cm by Rao Jie transcribes in a dynamic cursive script two classic Chinese essays, a farewell to Meng Dongye by Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan’s Zi Ren Zhuan. An inscription provides the date 'Xinchou', which means the 21st year of Zhizheng matching 1361 CE, when Rao fled to Suzhou to avoid the chaos after serving as the vice-chancellor of Huainan Province.
100 seals and several colophons attest of the admiration of readers for several centuries for the unrestrained freedom, boldness, rhythm and vitality of the brushstroke. The Qianlong emperor appreciated its "divinely transmitted purity" and had the work recorded in the Shiqu Baoji art repertory.
This manuscript resurfaces in a nearly time capsule condition after a century in oblivion. It was sold for HK $ 250M from a lower estimate of HK $ 10M by Sotheby's on April 10, 2025, lot 2528. Please watch the video shared by the auction house.
Calligraphy by Rao Jie, sold by Sotheby's on April 10, 2025, lot 2528. Significance in the history of Chinese calligraphy.
Overview of the Artwork
The calligraphy work in question is Calligraphy in Cursive Script (草書韓愈柳宗元文) by Rao Jie (饒介, c. 1310–1370s), a Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) scholar-official, poet, and master calligrapher. This monumental handscroll, measuring 29.8 x 599.1 cm (approximately 10 meters long), was executed in bold, spontaneous cursive script (caoshu) on paper using ink. It transcribes two Tang dynasty literary classics: Han Yu's Song Meng Dongye Xu (送孟東野序, "Farewell to Meng Dongye," 802 CE), a prose piece exploring themes of unrecognized talent and the inevitability of expression, and Liu Zongyuan's Zi Ren Zhuan (梓人傳, "The Tale of the Carpenter," 798 CE), a parable on moral governance and self-reliance. The scroll's frontispiece bears an inscription by Emperor Qianlong (r. 1735–1796) titled "Divinely Transmitted Purity" (神傳醇潔), accompanied by his seal, underscoring its imperial prestige. It also features over 100 collectors' seals (chops) from a 700-year provenance, including those of Ming collector Xiang Yuanbian (1525–1590), Qing imperial collections, and later Japanese owners, as well as colophons by figures like Dou Mu and Ishikawa Shuntai.
This piece is the longest surviving example of Rao Jie's work and represents a rare Yuan-era treasure, having been out of public view for decades prior to the sale.
The Sotheby's Sale
On April 10, 2025, during Sotheby's Hong Kong Fine Classical Chinese Paintings auction, Lot 2528 sparked an unprecedented 95-minute bidding war—the longest single-lot battle in the house's history—with over 200 bids. Estimated at HK$10–20 million (US$1.3–2.6 million), it hammered at HK$213.5 million (US$27.5 million) and sold for a final HK$250.1 million (US$32.2 million) including fees to an anonymous phone bidder. This result set a new auction record for Chinese calligraphy at Sotheby's and marked the most expensive artwork sold globally in 2025 up to that point, providing a significant boost to the post-pandemic Chinese art market amid broader economic caution.
Rao Jie: Life and Artistic Context
Rao Jie, a native of Jiangxi province, served as an official under the Mongol Yuan court during its declining Zhizheng era (1341–1368), a time of political instability and cultural flux as the dynasty neared collapse. As a literatus navigating this transition, he embodied the scholar-official ideal, blending administrative duties with literary and artistic pursuits. He was a patron to the poet Gao Qi (1336–1374), later canonized as one of the Ming dynasty's greatest literary figures, and instructed the influential early Ming calligrapher Song Ke (1327–1387). Contemporary chronicler Tao Zongyi (1316–?) lauded Rao in Essentials of Calligraphic History for his mastery of cursive script, likening it to the "wild cursive" (kuangcao) dynamism of Tang masters Zhang Xu (c. 685–759) and Huaisu (737–c. 799), known for their intoxicated, expressive strokes.
Rao's style fused the elegant, fluid structures of the "Two Wangs"—Wang Xizhi (303–361, the "sage of calligraphy") and his son Wang Xianzhi (344–386)—with the kinetic energy of Tang wild cursive, creating a bold, rhythmic form that prioritized spontaneity and inner vitality over rigid form. Influences from Song dynasty figures like Su Shi (1037–1101) and Tang's Yan Zhenqing (709–785) are evident in his structured yet liberated lines. His choice of Tang prose texts may reflect personal introspection amid Yuan turmoil, transforming philosophical musings into a visual symphony of ink and brush.
Significance in the History of Chinese Calligraphy
Rao Jie's work holds profound importance across multiple dimensions of Chinese calligraphy's 3,000-year evolution, where the art form has transcended mere writing to embody philosophical, aesthetic, and cultural essence—often deemed superior to painting as the purest expression of the literati spirit.
Overview of the Artwork
The calligraphy work in question is Calligraphy in Cursive Script (草書韓愈柳宗元文) by Rao Jie (饒介, c. 1310–1370s), a Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) scholar-official, poet, and master calligrapher. This monumental handscroll, measuring 29.8 x 599.1 cm (approximately 10 meters long), was executed in bold, spontaneous cursive script (caoshu) on paper using ink. It transcribes two Tang dynasty literary classics: Han Yu's Song Meng Dongye Xu (送孟東野序, "Farewell to Meng Dongye," 802 CE), a prose piece exploring themes of unrecognized talent and the inevitability of expression, and Liu Zongyuan's Zi Ren Zhuan (梓人傳, "The Tale of the Carpenter," 798 CE), a parable on moral governance and self-reliance. The scroll's frontispiece bears an inscription by Emperor Qianlong (r. 1735–1796) titled "Divinely Transmitted Purity" (神傳醇潔), accompanied by his seal, underscoring its imperial prestige. It also features over 100 collectors' seals (chops) from a 700-year provenance, including those of Ming collector Xiang Yuanbian (1525–1590), Qing imperial collections, and later Japanese owners, as well as colophons by figures like Dou Mu and Ishikawa Shuntai.
This piece is the longest surviving example of Rao Jie's work and represents a rare Yuan-era treasure, having been out of public view for decades prior to the sale.
The Sotheby's Sale
On April 10, 2025, during Sotheby's Hong Kong Fine Classical Chinese Paintings auction, Lot 2528 sparked an unprecedented 95-minute bidding war—the longest single-lot battle in the house's history—with over 200 bids. Estimated at HK$10–20 million (US$1.3–2.6 million), it hammered at HK$213.5 million (US$27.5 million) and sold for a final HK$250.1 million (US$32.2 million) including fees to an anonymous phone bidder. This result set a new auction record for Chinese calligraphy at Sotheby's and marked the most expensive artwork sold globally in 2025 up to that point, providing a significant boost to the post-pandemic Chinese art market amid broader economic caution.
Rao Jie: Life and Artistic Context
Rao Jie, a native of Jiangxi province, served as an official under the Mongol Yuan court during its declining Zhizheng era (1341–1368), a time of political instability and cultural flux as the dynasty neared collapse. As a literatus navigating this transition, he embodied the scholar-official ideal, blending administrative duties with literary and artistic pursuits. He was a patron to the poet Gao Qi (1336–1374), later canonized as one of the Ming dynasty's greatest literary figures, and instructed the influential early Ming calligrapher Song Ke (1327–1387). Contemporary chronicler Tao Zongyi (1316–?) lauded Rao in Essentials of Calligraphic History for his mastery of cursive script, likening it to the "wild cursive" (kuangcao) dynamism of Tang masters Zhang Xu (c. 685–759) and Huaisu (737–c. 799), known for their intoxicated, expressive strokes.
Rao's style fused the elegant, fluid structures of the "Two Wangs"—Wang Xizhi (303–361, the "sage of calligraphy") and his son Wang Xianzhi (344–386)—with the kinetic energy of Tang wild cursive, creating a bold, rhythmic form that prioritized spontaneity and inner vitality over rigid form. Influences from Song dynasty figures like Su Shi (1037–1101) and Tang's Yan Zhenqing (709–785) are evident in his structured yet liberated lines. His choice of Tang prose texts may reflect personal introspection amid Yuan turmoil, transforming philosophical musings into a visual symphony of ink and brush.
Significance in the History of Chinese Calligraphy
Rao Jie's work holds profound importance across multiple dimensions of Chinese calligraphy's 3,000-year evolution, where the art form has transcended mere writing to embody philosophical, aesthetic, and cultural essence—often deemed superior to painting as the purest expression of the literati spirit.
- Stylistic Innovation in Cursive Script: Cursive (caoshu), one of the "five scripts" (alongside seal, clerical, regular, and running), emerged in the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) for speed but flowered in the Tang as an expressive vehicle for emotion, especially among Chan Buddhist monks who valued its unrestrained flow. Rao's Yuan-era cursive bridges Tang exuberance with Ming restraint, infusing classical models with personal vigor. His "kinetic expression of thought" elevates prose into abstract art, where brush dynamics—bold pauses, sweeping arcs, and varying ink density—convey the texts' themes of frustration and moral clarity. This synthesis influenced Ming successors like Song Ke, contributing to the dynasty's revival of classical styles post-Yuan conquest.
- Imperial and Canonical Status: Selected by Qianlong in 1747 for inclusion in the Model Books of the Three Rarities Hall (Sanxitang Fatie)—a set of 236 stone-engraved rubbings of masterpieces from the Three Kingdoms (220–280) to Ming—the scroll was reproduced for imperial dissemination, ensuring Rao's place in the canon. Qianlong's frontispiece and seal affirm its "divine" purity, aligning it with treasures like Wang Xizhi's Preface to the Orchid Pavilion Collection (Lanting Xu, 353 CE). Over 70 collectors' seals document its journey through elite hands, from Ming connoisseurs to Qing emperors and post-1911 Japanese collectors (including a cousin of Puyi, the last emperor), symbolizing calligraphy's role as a "time capsule" of cultural transmission.
- Cultural and Historical Resonance: Amid Yuan-Ming transition, Rao's scroll captures literati resilience under foreign rule, echoing Tang texts' laments on unrecognized genius—a subtle critique of Mongol governance. In broader history, it exemplifies calligraphy's integration with poetry and philosophy, as per the Confucian triad of "poetry, calligraphy, painting." Yuan works like this are rarities, prized for their scarcity compared to abundant Song (960–1279) or Ming output, highlighting the era's introspective "literati painting" ethos. Its 2025 sale underscores ongoing market reverence for pre-modern masterpieces, revitalizing interest in classical forms amid modern digital shifts.
1430 Sutra by Huijin for the Xuande Emperor
2018 SOLD for HK$ 240M by Sotheby's
The calligraphy of the Sutras of Mahayana Buddhism is an act of piety welcomed for education and enlightenment. When the patron or the user is an emperor, the manuscript reaches a luxury unmatched in its class.
A gold ink on dark blue paper is sumptuous. A Lotus Sutra handwritten in 1345 CE for the education of a child emperor of Korea was sold for HK $ 31.6M by Sotheby's on May 30, 2016. The lot consisted of seven big albums.
Buddhism is essential for the consolidation of the Ming dynasty. After the death of the warrior emperor Yongle, his Buddhist advisers organize a period of peace. The very short reign of the Hongxi emperor initiates the necessary reforms. His son the Xuande emperor can satisfy his artistic talents and grant to Buddhism a preference devoid from political intents.
During the fifth year of his reign, 1430 CE, Xuande commissioned an Elder of the State named Huijin to calligraphy four great Sutras. The paper is covered with dark indigo ink mixed with goat brain. This thick, brilliant and strong layer allows the gold to stay on the surface without diffusing into the paper fibers. This biological constituent is an emulsifier similar to egg white in the tempera paint.
All the four Sutras are realized. Two are kept at the National Palace Museum in Taipei. The third was probably early lost in a fire after being presented to a monastery founded with Xuande's sponsorship.
Two cases containing five consecutive albums each from the Sutra of transcendent wisdom or prajnaparamita have survived. In addition to the calligraphy, the work includes illustrations in thin gold lines of Buddhist, imperial and esoteric figures including Buddhas, dragons and demons. This set was sold for HK $ 240M by Sotheby's on April 3, 2018, lot 101. The rest of this very long Sutra is lost. Please watch the video shared by the auction house.
A gold ink on dark blue paper is sumptuous. A Lotus Sutra handwritten in 1345 CE for the education of a child emperor of Korea was sold for HK $ 31.6M by Sotheby's on May 30, 2016. The lot consisted of seven big albums.
Buddhism is essential for the consolidation of the Ming dynasty. After the death of the warrior emperor Yongle, his Buddhist advisers organize a period of peace. The very short reign of the Hongxi emperor initiates the necessary reforms. His son the Xuande emperor can satisfy his artistic talents and grant to Buddhism a preference devoid from political intents.
During the fifth year of his reign, 1430 CE, Xuande commissioned an Elder of the State named Huijin to calligraphy four great Sutras. The paper is covered with dark indigo ink mixed with goat brain. This thick, brilliant and strong layer allows the gold to stay on the surface without diffusing into the paper fibers. This biological constituent is an emulsifier similar to egg white in the tempera paint.
All the four Sutras are realized. Two are kept at the National Palace Museum in Taipei. The third was probably early lost in a fire after being presented to a monastery founded with Xuande's sponsorship.
Two cases containing five consecutive albums each from the Sutra of transcendent wisdom or prajnaparamita have survived. In addition to the calligraphy, the work includes illustrations in thin gold lines of Buddhist, imperial and esoteric figures including Buddhas, dragons and demons. This set was sold for HK $ 240M by Sotheby's on April 3, 2018, lot 101. The rest of this very long Sutra is lost. Please watch the video shared by the auction house.
Sutra by Huijin for the Xuande emperor, sold by Sotheby's on April 3, 2018, lot 101. Significance in Ming Buddhist art.
The Sutra in question is two sets (ten albums total) of the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (specifically sections of the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra or 大般若波羅蜜多經, Great Perfection of Wisdom Sutra), executed in liquid gold ink (泥金) on indigo-dyed goat-brain ritual paper (磁青紙 or 羊腦箋, a luxurious, deep blue-black paper treated for durability and auspiciousness). These are leporello (accordion-fold) albums, each approximately 40.5 × 14.5 cm, from the Xuande period (1426–1435) of the Ming dynasty.
This extraordinary work was sold at Sotheby's Hong Kong on April 3, 2018, in the single-lot "The Lost Wisdom Sutra: A Treasure from the Golden Age of Xuande" auction (sale HK0792), as lot 101. It hammered for HK$210 million (about USD 26.8 million at the time), selling for HK$240.375 million (approx. USD 30.7 million) with buyer's premium, establishing a new world auction record for any Chinese Buddhist manuscript or sutra at that point.
The project was commissioned by imperial order from the Xuande Emperor (Zhu Zhanji, r. 1425–1435), who appointed the eminent monk Huijin (慧進, also referred to as an "Elder of the State" or senior monk) to supervise the copying of four major Mahayana sutras in gold ink. Huijin, highly revered, oversaw a team of the most skilled calligraphers and artisans. Only portions of the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra survive today (the rest of the vast project is lost), making this surviving set exceptionally rare.
Provenance includes a Kyoto collection (likely tied to Japanese temple or connoisseur circles where such Ming imperial Buddhist works were preserved).
Significance in the History of Ming Buddhist Art
The Xuande reign is often regarded as a golden age of Ming culture, art, and imperial patronage—marked by refined aesthetics, technological innovation, and fervent support for Buddhism (continuing Yongle-era traditions but with greater personal devotion from Xuande).
The Sutra in question is two sets (ten albums total) of the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (specifically sections of the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra or 大般若波羅蜜多經, Great Perfection of Wisdom Sutra), executed in liquid gold ink (泥金) on indigo-dyed goat-brain ritual paper (磁青紙 or 羊腦箋, a luxurious, deep blue-black paper treated for durability and auspiciousness). These are leporello (accordion-fold) albums, each approximately 40.5 × 14.5 cm, from the Xuande period (1426–1435) of the Ming dynasty.
This extraordinary work was sold at Sotheby's Hong Kong on April 3, 2018, in the single-lot "The Lost Wisdom Sutra: A Treasure from the Golden Age of Xuande" auction (sale HK0792), as lot 101. It hammered for HK$210 million (about USD 26.8 million at the time), selling for HK$240.375 million (approx. USD 30.7 million) with buyer's premium, establishing a new world auction record for any Chinese Buddhist manuscript or sutra at that point.
The project was commissioned by imperial order from the Xuande Emperor (Zhu Zhanji, r. 1425–1435), who appointed the eminent monk Huijin (慧進, also referred to as an "Elder of the State" or senior monk) to supervise the copying of four major Mahayana sutras in gold ink. Huijin, highly revered, oversaw a team of the most skilled calligraphers and artisans. Only portions of the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra survive today (the rest of the vast project is lost), making this surviving set exceptionally rare.
Provenance includes a Kyoto collection (likely tied to Japanese temple or connoisseur circles where such Ming imperial Buddhist works were preserved).
Significance in the History of Ming Buddhist Art
The Xuande reign is often regarded as a golden age of Ming culture, art, and imperial patronage—marked by refined aesthetics, technological innovation, and fervent support for Buddhism (continuing Yongle-era traditions but with greater personal devotion from Xuande).
- Imperial Buddhist Patronage and Merit-Making: Xuande actively promoted Buddhism as a state-supported religion, commissioning grand sutra-copying projects to accumulate merit for the imperial family, ensure longevity/prosperity, and legitimize rule. This gold-on-indigo sutra exemplifies the pinnacle of such endeavors: using the most opulent materials (gold ink symbolizing purity and enlightenment; indigo "goat-brain" paper for its rarity, sheen, and ritual significance). The scale and quality reflect court-level resources, involving elite monks like Huijin and top secular calligraphers.
- Calligraphic and Artistic Excellence: The script is in refined regular/standard style (楷書), described as "clear, pure, and elegantly floating like clouds" (澄净秀逸如浮云). It represents the high standard of early Ming court calligraphy—balanced, disciplined, and spiritually resonant—drawing on Tang models but infused with Ming elegance. As a supervised imperial project, it set a benchmark for Buddhist manuscript production, influencing later Ming and Qing copies.
- Material and Technical Innovation: The use of liquid gold (applied with precision to avoid bleeding on the specially prepared paper) and indigo goat-brain paper (a rare, luxurious substrate) highlights Ming advancements in book arts and ritual objects. Such sumptuous execution elevated sutras from mere texts to devotional artworks, paralleling the era's famous cloisonné, porcelain, and lacquer wares.
- Role in Ming Buddhist Visual Culture: Ming Buddhist art under Xuande blended Chinese traditions with Tibetan influences (via Yongle-era exchanges), emphasizing devotion, iconography, and textual transmission. Imperial sutras like this served multiple purposes: religious merit, cultural prestige, diplomatic gifts, and preservation of doctrine. Surviving examples are exceedingly rare due to wars, fires, and dispersals—making this set a key survivor that illuminates the "lost" grandeur of Xuande-era Buddhist production. It contrasts with literati works (e.g., Zhao Mengfu's personal copies) by showcasing state-sponsored, collective splendor.
1616-1672 Echo through the Mountains by Dong Qichang et alia
2023 SOLD for HK$ 190M by China Guardian
Dong Qichang desired to be an arbiter of taste. He constituted with younger fellows a sort of academy later identified as the Nine Friends in Painting (Hua Zhong Jiu You) by poet Wu Weiye in 1655 CE.
The scholar artist Wu Hufan began in 1933 collecting albums of art and associated calligraphies by each of the nine. The collection was complete in 1947. The albums were carefully assembled into a unified shape with the overall title Echo through the mountains : Landscapes and Calligraphy by the Nine Friends in Painting.
The earliest entry is an album by Dong Qichang of eight leaves 25.3 x 17.5 cm dated bingchen, 1616 CE. It is titled Album of Landscapes after Old Masters. The next one, in 1622 by Li Liufang, is titled Album of Landscapes and Calligraphies. The latest, made in 1672, brings the overall total to 108 leaves. Its art is by the youngest, Wang Jian, who was aged 38 at Dong's passing in 1636.
The nine volumes were sold for HK $ 190M by China Guardian as a single lot on June 12, 2023, lot 790.
The story of the Nine Friends in Painting (Hua Zhong Jiu You) around Dong Qichang
The "Nine Friends in Painting" (Hua Zhong Jiu You, 画中九友) refers to a celebrated group of nine Chinese artists, poets, and scholars active during the late Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) and the early Qing Dynasty (1644–1912). This informal circle emerged amid a period of political turmoil, including the fall of the Ming and the rise of the Qing, when literati sought refuge in artistic and intellectual pursuits. The group emphasized the Southern School of painting, which prioritized expressive, scholarly brushwork over realistic depiction, drawing from Daoist-inspired romanticism and emotional depth.
Formation and Naming
The group was not formally organized during their lifetimes but retroactively named and celebrated in an undated poem titled "Huazhong Jiuyou Ge" ("Song of the Nine Friends in Painting") by the poet Wu Weiye (1609–1671), written around 1655. Wu's poem honored their collaborative spirit and artistic legacy. Centered in the Songjiang region (near modern-day Shanghai), the circle formed around the influential figure of Dong Qichang, who acted as a mentor and arbiter of taste. Dong gathered younger artists into a loose academy-like network to promote literati traditions, where painting, calligraphy, and poetry intertwined as expressions of personal cultivation and intellectual refinement. Their activities included creating shared albums of landscapes, calligraphies, and poems, often collaborating on works that echoed ancient masters while innovating within the orthodox style.
Connection to Dong Qichang
Dong Qichang (1555–1636), a prominent Ming official, painter, calligrapher, and art theorist, was the pivotal figure in the group. He championed the division of Chinese painting into "Northern" (realistic, professional) and "Southern" (expressive, amateur literati) schools, advocating for the latter as superior for conveying inner spirit. Dong's influence extended through mentorship; many members were his protégés or admirers who adopted his theories. For instance, he encouraged collaborative projects, such as albums where each contributed leaves of art and inscriptions. His death in 1636 marked the end of the group's active phase, but their works continued to inspire Qing-era orthodoxy.
The Nine Members
All members were multifaceted literati—poets, painters, and scholars—who blended artistic creation with scholarly discourse. Here's a list with brief backgrounds:
The Nine Friends symbolized the resilience of literati culture during dynastic change, influencing subsequent generations like the Four Wangs and the Huangshan School. Their collaborative albums, such as Resounding through the Mountains: Landscapes and Calligraphy by 'Hua Zhong Jiu You' (with 108 leaves spanning decades), exemplify shared creativity and have fetched high prices at auctions, underscoring their enduring value. Today, they represent a bridge between Ming innovation and Qing conservatism in Chinese art history.
The scholar artist Wu Hufan began in 1933 collecting albums of art and associated calligraphies by each of the nine. The collection was complete in 1947. The albums were carefully assembled into a unified shape with the overall title Echo through the mountains : Landscapes and Calligraphy by the Nine Friends in Painting.
The earliest entry is an album by Dong Qichang of eight leaves 25.3 x 17.5 cm dated bingchen, 1616 CE. It is titled Album of Landscapes after Old Masters. The next one, in 1622 by Li Liufang, is titled Album of Landscapes and Calligraphies. The latest, made in 1672, brings the overall total to 108 leaves. Its art is by the youngest, Wang Jian, who was aged 38 at Dong's passing in 1636.
The nine volumes were sold for HK $ 190M by China Guardian as a single lot on June 12, 2023, lot 790.
The story of the Nine Friends in Painting (Hua Zhong Jiu You) around Dong Qichang
The "Nine Friends in Painting" (Hua Zhong Jiu You, 画中九友) refers to a celebrated group of nine Chinese artists, poets, and scholars active during the late Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) and the early Qing Dynasty (1644–1912). This informal circle emerged amid a period of political turmoil, including the fall of the Ming and the rise of the Qing, when literati sought refuge in artistic and intellectual pursuits. The group emphasized the Southern School of painting, which prioritized expressive, scholarly brushwork over realistic depiction, drawing from Daoist-inspired romanticism and emotional depth.
Formation and Naming
The group was not formally organized during their lifetimes but retroactively named and celebrated in an undated poem titled "Huazhong Jiuyou Ge" ("Song of the Nine Friends in Painting") by the poet Wu Weiye (1609–1671), written around 1655. Wu's poem honored their collaborative spirit and artistic legacy. Centered in the Songjiang region (near modern-day Shanghai), the circle formed around the influential figure of Dong Qichang, who acted as a mentor and arbiter of taste. Dong gathered younger artists into a loose academy-like network to promote literati traditions, where painting, calligraphy, and poetry intertwined as expressions of personal cultivation and intellectual refinement. Their activities included creating shared albums of landscapes, calligraphies, and poems, often collaborating on works that echoed ancient masters while innovating within the orthodox style.
Connection to Dong Qichang
Dong Qichang (1555–1636), a prominent Ming official, painter, calligrapher, and art theorist, was the pivotal figure in the group. He championed the division of Chinese painting into "Northern" (realistic, professional) and "Southern" (expressive, amateur literati) schools, advocating for the latter as superior for conveying inner spirit. Dong's influence extended through mentorship; many members were his protégés or admirers who adopted his theories. For instance, he encouraged collaborative projects, such as albums where each contributed leaves of art and inscriptions. His death in 1636 marked the end of the group's active phase, but their works continued to inspire Qing-era orthodoxy.
The Nine Members
All members were multifaceted literati—poets, painters, and scholars—who blended artistic creation with scholarly discourse. Here's a list with brief backgrounds:
- Dong Qichang (董其昌, 1555–1636): The group's leader and theorist; a high-ranking Ming official known for landscape paintings and calligraphy that emulated ancient styles like those of Wang Wei.
- Yang Wencong (杨文聪, 1597–1645): A poet and painter from Songjiang; focused on literati landscapes and was influenced by Dong's emphasis on brushwork.
- Cheng Jiasui (程嘉燧, 1565–1643): A scholar-painter skilled in poetry and ink landscapes; collaborated closely with Dong on albums.
- Zhang Xueceng (张学曾, 1583–1640): Known for his poetic inscriptions and paintings; part of the Songjiang literati circle.
- Bian Wenyu (卞文瑜, 1576–1655): A calligrapher and painter who specialized in scholarly themes; survived into the Qing era.
- Shao Mi (邵弥, 1592–1642): Excelled in monk-inspired landscapes; blended poetry with visual art.
- Li Liufang (李流芳, 1575–1629): A poet-painter famous for serene ink washes; contributed early works to group albums (e.g., dated 1622).
- Wang Shimin (王时敏, 1592–1680): One of the "Four Wangs" of Qing painting; Dong's student, known for orthodox landscapes.
- Wang Jian (王鉴, 1598–1677): Also one of the "Four Wangs"; specialized in grand mountain scenes and continued Dong's legacy into the Qing.
The Nine Friends symbolized the resilience of literati culture during dynastic change, influencing subsequent generations like the Four Wangs and the Huangshan School. Their collaborative albums, such as Resounding through the Mountains: Landscapes and Calligraphy by 'Hua Zhong Jiu You' (with 108 leaves spanning decades), exemplify shared creativity and have fetched high prices at auctions, underscoring their enduring value. Today, they represent a bridge between Ming innovation and Qing conservatism in Chinese art history.
