Glass before 1900
Except otherwise stated, all results include the premium.
See also : Glass and crystal Ritual bronzes Qianlong Egypt Bird
Chronology : 600 BCE - CE 1730-1739 1750-1759
See also : Glass and crystal Ritual bronzes Qianlong Egypt Bird
Chronology : 600 BCE - CE 1730-1739 1750-1759
Warring States Fang Hu
2020 SOLD for $ 8.3M by Sotheby's
Around 400 BCE the Zhou were forced to recognize the full independence of three kingdoms around Henan. Their inexorable decline opens the Warring States period which will put up to seven major states in competition. The Qin emerge victorious in 221 BCE and found the Chinese empire.
The wording Warring States wrongly evokes anarchy. This period instead opened up China to new life styles through the development of Confucianism and Taoism. The traditional sacrificial or funeral rites persist while taking into account the observation of nature and medicine. The taotie, which expressed the mystery of the spirits, disappear from the bronze vessels.
The technological evolution of bronze becomes multidisciplinary. In very thick walls, deep grooves are filled with precious materials that bring the colors : gold, silver, copper, malachite, turquoise. Bronze handles and zoomorphic elements are added.
The baluster-shaped hu is the most common vessel at that time for the ritual use of wine. On September 23, 2020, Sotheby's sold for $ 8.3M from a lower estimate of $ 2.5M a 35 cm high covered fang hu, lot 578. Please watch the video shared by the auction house. Fang means that the bottle has a square section. It is richly decorated with gold, silver and glass.
The gold was encrusted by hammering a sheet on a pattern of protruding knobs added after casting. The glass was fitted in diamond- or half diamond- shaped plaques of nine or six beads in hollow reserves between the gold bosses. Silver volutes decorate the dark brown bronze surface inlaid with green malachite. The slightly domed cover is surmounted by four animals in the round.
The use of glass, recently introduced in China, is extremely rare. The only other example from the same period of a bronze vessel inlaid with glass is a pair of hu discovered around 1930, known from photographs of the time.
Each glass bead has the shape of an eye, in a concentric polychromy. This design, which perhaps had magical significance, was produced for a very short period of time. Examples were found in the tomb of Marquis Yi of the principality of Zeng in Hubei, dated 433 BCE.
The sale of the fang hu, which had not been seen since 1938, allows a real rediscovery by the experts of the opulence reached in the time of the Warring States by the ritual bronzes of classical form.
The wording Warring States wrongly evokes anarchy. This period instead opened up China to new life styles through the development of Confucianism and Taoism. The traditional sacrificial or funeral rites persist while taking into account the observation of nature and medicine. The taotie, which expressed the mystery of the spirits, disappear from the bronze vessels.
The technological evolution of bronze becomes multidisciplinary. In very thick walls, deep grooves are filled with precious materials that bring the colors : gold, silver, copper, malachite, turquoise. Bronze handles and zoomorphic elements are added.
The baluster-shaped hu is the most common vessel at that time for the ritual use of wine. On September 23, 2020, Sotheby's sold for $ 8.3M from a lower estimate of $ 2.5M a 35 cm high covered fang hu, lot 578. Please watch the video shared by the auction house. Fang means that the bottle has a square section. It is richly decorated with gold, silver and glass.
The gold was encrusted by hammering a sheet on a pattern of protruding knobs added after casting. The glass was fitted in diamond- or half diamond- shaped plaques of nine or six beads in hollow reserves between the gold bosses. Silver volutes decorate the dark brown bronze surface inlaid with green malachite. The slightly domed cover is surmounted by four animals in the round.
The use of glass, recently introduced in China, is extremely rare. The only other example from the same period of a bronze vessel inlaid with glass is a pair of hu discovered around 1930, known from photographs of the time.
Each glass bead has the shape of an eye, in a concentric polychromy. This design, which perhaps had magical significance, was produced for a very short period of time. Examples were found in the tomb of Marquis Yi of the principality of Zeng in Hubei, dated 433 BCE.
The sale of the fang hu, which had not been seen since 1938, allows a real rediscovery by the experts of the opulence reached in the time of the Warring States by the ritual bronzes of classical form.
around 300 CE Cage Cup
1
2004 SOLD for £ 2.65M by Bonhams
The diatretum, cage cup in English, is a late Roman glass vessel. Its dual construction is made of an inner beaker and an outer cage. The cage stands out from the body of the cup to which it is attached by short bridges hidden within the decoration.
The protection of the cup by the cage is a technical feat of top luxury. Small examples could be used for liturgical drinking, and wider bowls as a hanging lamp projecting the pattern decoration of the cage. The Lycurgus cup, kept at the British museum, is the only complete cage cup with figures. Some other pieces are inscribed.
One of the largest examples, 18.2 cm wide and 10 cm high, was found in the Eastern empire while fragments of similar vessels were found in Germany. It had been carved from a thick blank of colorless glass. The cage is made of two large rows of adjacent circles. It has a copper alloy collar attached to the vessel below the rim and above the flange and a later lamp-hanger with three hooks. It is not inscribed.
It was sold for £ 2.3M by Sotheby's in 1997, lot 10 and for £ 2.65M by Bonhams on July 14, 2004, lot 18.
The protection of the cup by the cage is a technical feat of top luxury. Small examples could be used for liturgical drinking, and wider bowls as a hanging lamp projecting the pattern decoration of the cage. The Lycurgus cup, kept at the British museum, is the only complete cage cup with figures. Some other pieces are inscribed.
One of the largest examples, 18.2 cm wide and 10 cm high, was found in the Eastern empire while fragments of similar vessels were found in Germany. It had been carved from a thick blank of colorless glass. The cage is made of two large rows of adjacent circles. It has a copper alloy collar attached to the vessel below the rim and above the flange and a later lamp-hanger with three hooks. It is not inscribed.
It was sold for £ 2.3M by Sotheby's in 1997, lot 10 and for £ 2.65M by Bonhams on July 14, 2004, lot 18.
1 bis
for reference
Lycurgus Cup
British Museum
The image of the Lycurgus cup fitted with modern rim and foot is shared by Wikimedia with attribution Chappsnet, CC BY 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons.
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Fatimid Rock Crystal Ewer
2008 SOLD for £ 3.1M by Christie's
The Islamic art reached an extreme opulence before that irreparable cultural disaster that we called the Crusades. 1000 years ago, it was less than 400 years after the Hegira. The Fatimid dynasty, having come from North Africa, reigned until Egypt where it founded its capital, Cairo. The rock crystal ewer narrated here was made in that period.
In January, 2008, a small English auction house listed a French wine jug of the nineteenth century, estimated one hundred pounds.
It was indeed one of seven identified example of Fatimid rock crystal ewers from the Fatimid royal treasure of Cairo. It was carved in a block of flawless rock crystal, and is decorated with cheetahs in chains. The six other copies belong to museums. Each one is decorated with a different animal in relation to the theme of hunting.
It had been gold mounted in the middle of the nineteenth century by a French goldsmith who once worked for Queen Victoria. That explains the original error of description.
It was sold for £ 3.1M by Christie's on October 7, 2008.
Such pieces are fragile. The one that belonged to the Pitti palace was broken in 1998 beyond repair during a fall. Scarcity is increased by the disappearance of objects.
In January, 2008, a small English auction house listed a French wine jug of the nineteenth century, estimated one hundred pounds.
It was indeed one of seven identified example of Fatimid rock crystal ewers from the Fatimid royal treasure of Cairo. It was carved in a block of flawless rock crystal, and is decorated with cheetahs in chains. The six other copies belong to museums. Each one is decorated with a different animal in relation to the theme of hunting.
It had been gold mounted in the middle of the nineteenth century by a French goldsmith who once worked for Queen Victoria. That explains the original error of description.
It was sold for £ 3.1M by Christie's on October 7, 2008.
Such pieces are fragile. The one that belonged to the Pitti palace was broken in 1998 beyond repair during a fall. Scarcity is increased by the disappearance of objects.
Mamluk
Intro
The gilding and enamelling of glass vessels appeared in Persia around 1200 CE. These exquisite pieces are extremely fragile. Very few are dated.
A 28 cm high baluster-shaped bottle with a flared neck is kept by the Furusiyya Art Foundation. It is decorated with scenes from the life of a Christian monastic community. This Christian theme on a vessel of Islamic design can only be correlated with the Mamluk revolution which overthrew in 1250 in Egypt the Ayyubid dynasty unable to resist the seventh crusade.
The revolution was social : the Mamluk were soldiers of servile origin. Louis IX allied with them temporarily in 1252 in Syria while they were endeavoring to reconquer Damascus.
On October 27, 2020, Sotheby's sold for £ 840K a 24 cm high bottle in same shape and technique as the Furusiyya specimen, lot 449. Blue, red and white enamels had been applied after the gilding on a brownish-yellow glass.
The body and neck are adorned with a frieze inscribed in Islamic letters in praise of an unidentified sultan. The shoulder is decorated with intricate foliate figures and with four golden fish spread around the circumference. When the vessel is filled with clear water, this arrangement gives the illusion of the evolution of the fish in an aquarium. Under these conditions the gilding brings a sparkling effect on the scales.
Such a piece is extremely rare. Another example of the same shape is known, smaller and in blue glass. These vessels were used to clean the hands during the meal. Water was poured over a brass basin silver-inlaid with swimming fish.
A 28 cm high baluster-shaped bottle with a flared neck is kept by the Furusiyya Art Foundation. It is decorated with scenes from the life of a Christian monastic community. This Christian theme on a vessel of Islamic design can only be correlated with the Mamluk revolution which overthrew in 1250 in Egypt the Ayyubid dynasty unable to resist the seventh crusade.
The revolution was social : the Mamluk were soldiers of servile origin. Louis IX allied with them temporarily in 1252 in Syria while they were endeavoring to reconquer Damascus.
On October 27, 2020, Sotheby's sold for £ 840K a 24 cm high bottle in same shape and technique as the Furusiyya specimen, lot 449. Blue, red and white enamels had been applied after the gilding on a brownish-yellow glass.
The body and neck are adorned with a frieze inscribed in Islamic letters in praise of an unidentified sultan. The shoulder is decorated with intricate foliate figures and with four golden fish spread around the circumference. When the vessel is filled with clear water, this arrangement gives the illusion of the evolution of the fish in an aquarium. Under these conditions the gilding brings a sparkling effect on the scales.
Such a piece is extremely rare. Another example of the same shape is known, smaller and in blue glass. These vessels were used to clean the hands during the meal. Water was poured over a brass basin silver-inlaid with swimming fish.
1
mid 14th century finger bowl
2009 SOLD for £ 1.55M by Sotheby's
A Mamluk bucket in gilded and polychromatic enameled glass was sold for £ 1.55M from a lower estimate of £ 600K by Sotheby's on April 1, 2009, lot 96.
21 cm high, it is conically shaped with a top diameter of 20 cm. The thick glass is brownish with some large and many tiny bubbles. It is very nicely decorated, including palmettes and animals in three registers of similar heights. In the lower section four roundels feature a walking lion. An inscription in cursive style indicates that it contains cool water and serves as a finger vessel. The colors are bright and contrasting. Some figures are outlined in red impasto.
Old glasses are very rare with no more than four other remaining pieces of this type. By comparison of its decorative motifs with other Mamluk vessels from Syria and Egypt, it was made ca the mid 14th century CE. The use of lapis lazuli instead of the cobalt for the blue enamel was limited to Mamluk art from that period.
Known as the Rothschild bucket from an earlier provenance, this piece is now residing in the Museum of Islamic Art in Doha.
21 cm high, it is conically shaped with a top diameter of 20 cm. The thick glass is brownish with some large and many tiny bubbles. It is very nicely decorated, including palmettes and animals in three registers of similar heights. In the lower section four roundels feature a walking lion. An inscription in cursive style indicates that it contains cool water and serves as a finger vessel. The colors are bright and contrasting. Some figures are outlined in red impasto.
Old glasses are very rare with no more than four other remaining pieces of this type. By comparison of its decorative motifs with other Mamluk vessels from Syria and Egypt, it was made ca the mid 14th century CE. The use of lapis lazuli instead of the cobalt for the blue enamel was limited to Mamluk art from that period.
Known as the Rothschild bucket from an earlier provenance, this piece is now residing in the Museum of Islamic Art in Doha.
2
14th century bowl
2023 SOLD for £ 950K by Sotheby's
A large footed bowl 29.5 cm maximum diameter is an example of the polychromatic Mamluk art in Egypt and Syria in the 14th century CE with many similarities with the bucket narrated above..
This piece has been enameled and gilded in its inner side over a thick brownish and bubbly glass. When it is lit, its shadow on a floor is exquisite. It was probably hanged to metal chains like a mosque lamp. Its is decorated with medallions on the theme of lion and antelope, with confronting peacocks and with floral patterns. Some motifs are outlined in red.
The gilding remains as traces but the enamels remain bright. The bowl was sold for £ 950K from a lower estimate of £ 600K by Sotheby's on October 25, 2023, lot 70.
This piece has been enameled and gilded in its inner side over a thick brownish and bubbly glass. When it is lit, its shadow on a floor is exquisite. It was probably hanged to metal chains like a mosque lamp. Its is decorated with medallions on the theme of lion and antelope, with confronting peacocks and with floral patterns. Some motifs are outlined in red.
The gilding remains as traces but the enamels remain bright. The bowl was sold for £ 950K from a lower estimate of £ 600K by Sotheby's on October 25, 2023, lot 70.
3
1356 Mosque Lamp
2024 SOLD for £ 5.1M by Bonhams
A mosque lamp forwards the word of God through the dedication of a powerful ruler. Hanging from the ceiling, the enameled glass lamp shines like a star over the believers in the darkness of the building. The technique of simultaneously gilding and enameling glass in a single firing was almost unique to the Mamluk court.
A magnificent example 38.5 cm high provides through its transparent walls a verse of the Qur'an and the name, title and shield of its patron the powerful Mamluk Emir Sarghitmish. The verse states that 'Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth. His light is like a niche in which there is a lamp'. It has the typical form of a rounded angular body with flaring conical mouth, with six applied loop handles.
Sarghitmish ruled Egypt beside his fellow Emir Shaykhu from 1351 CE. The Sultan was a child whom they deposed when he tried to get some power of his own. The reinstated him in 1356. At that date the pious and learned Sarghitmish built in Cairo a madrasa or Islamic college in the vicinity of the mosque of Ibn Tulun. The lamp was certainly executed for the madrasa.
It was sold for £ 5.1M from a lower estimate of £ 600K by Bonhams on November 12, 2024, lot 69 consigned by the descendants of a prime minister of Egypt, Nubar Pasha. Please watch the video shared by the auction house.
The death of Shaykhu killed by rebel Mamluks in 1357 brought too much power to Sarghitmish who was jailed by the Sultan in 1358 and died later in that year. The Sultan was killed in 1361 by an Emir.
A magnificent example 38.5 cm high provides through its transparent walls a verse of the Qur'an and the name, title and shield of its patron the powerful Mamluk Emir Sarghitmish. The verse states that 'Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth. His light is like a niche in which there is a lamp'. It has the typical form of a rounded angular body with flaring conical mouth, with six applied loop handles.
Sarghitmish ruled Egypt beside his fellow Emir Shaykhu from 1351 CE. The Sultan was a child whom they deposed when he tried to get some power of his own. The reinstated him in 1356. At that date the pious and learned Sarghitmish built in Cairo a madrasa or Islamic college in the vicinity of the mosque of Ibn Tulun. The lamp was certainly executed for the madrasa.
It was sold for £ 5.1M from a lower estimate of £ 600K by Bonhams on November 12, 2024, lot 69 consigned by the descendants of a prime minister of Egypt, Nubar Pasha. Please watch the video shared by the auction house.
The death of Shaykhu killed by rebel Mamluks in 1357 brought too much power to Sarghitmish who was jailed by the Sultan in 1358 and died later in that year. The Sultan was killed in 1361 by an Emir.
1737 Falangcai on Glass pouch
2019 SOLD for HK$ 207M by Sotheby's
In the transfer of the European technology of enamel painting, the Kangxi emperor creates a workshop in 1693 CE in the Forbidden City. The new technique will be used on several supports : copper, silver, porcelain. Three years later, Kangxi opens a glass workshop in the same place.
Enamel on glass is the most difficult technique. Each color demands a different baking to be lively, and a little overheating above the enamel melting point damages the glass. The term used is falangcai as for porcelain. The imperial archives do not mention any glass falangcai before 1705. The surviving pieces from the reigns of Kangxi and Yongzheng are incredibly rare.
When he succeeds his father, Qianlong is overflowing with enthusiasm for all forms of art. He expects from his workshops unprecedented technical achievements along with decorations of utmost finesse and originality.
On the 22nd day of the 1st month of the 3rd year of his reign, in 1737 CE, the archives record the presentation to the emperor by three eunuchs of a glass vase shaped like a pouch. This blue vase is immediately returned to the workshops for being copied. It did not survive.
Two glass falangcai with a bright yellow enamel background certainly correspond to this commission. Slightly different in shape and completely different in the decor, they were not scheduled as pendants. All other glass falangcai of this form were failed or broken.
These two pieces are of the largest dimension for this technique, 18 cm high. The pleated ovoid shape imitating the silk is knotted by a ribbon in high relief which very elegantly clasps the upper part of the purse. The imperial mark appears within a flower.
Both objects belonged in the nineteenth century to an imperial prince. They were sold separately by Sotheby's in 1988. One of them, with a dense set of twelve dragons, is now to the collection of the Hong Kong Museum of Art.
The other piece is the best achievement. Its colors are brighter. The picture with two phoenix twirling amidst flowers is very pleasant with flamboyant plumages. The rim is crenellated.
This glass pouch was sold by Sotheby's for HK $ 24M on October 29, 2000 and for HK $ 207M on October 8, 2019, lot 1. It is narrated by Nicholas Chow in the video shared by The Value.
Enamel on glass is the most difficult technique. Each color demands a different baking to be lively, and a little overheating above the enamel melting point damages the glass. The term used is falangcai as for porcelain. The imperial archives do not mention any glass falangcai before 1705. The surviving pieces from the reigns of Kangxi and Yongzheng are incredibly rare.
When he succeeds his father, Qianlong is overflowing with enthusiasm for all forms of art. He expects from his workshops unprecedented technical achievements along with decorations of utmost finesse and originality.
On the 22nd day of the 1st month of the 3rd year of his reign, in 1737 CE, the archives record the presentation to the emperor by three eunuchs of a glass vase shaped like a pouch. This blue vase is immediately returned to the workshops for being copied. It did not survive.
Two glass falangcai with a bright yellow enamel background certainly correspond to this commission. Slightly different in shape and completely different in the decor, they were not scheduled as pendants. All other glass falangcai of this form were failed or broken.
These two pieces are of the largest dimension for this technique, 18 cm high. The pleated ovoid shape imitating the silk is knotted by a ribbon in high relief which very elegantly clasps the upper part of the purse. The imperial mark appears within a flower.
Both objects belonged in the nineteenth century to an imperial prince. They were sold separately by Sotheby's in 1988. One of them, with a dense set of twelve dragons, is now to the collection of the Hong Kong Museum of Art.
The other piece is the best achievement. Its colors are brighter. The picture with two phoenix twirling amidst flowers is very pleasant with flamboyant plumages. The rim is crenellated.
This glass pouch was sold by Sotheby's for HK $ 24M on October 29, 2000 and for HK $ 207M on October 8, 2019, lot 1. It is narrated by Nicholas Chow in the video shared by The Value.
Falangcai on porcelain and on glass : compare period range, workshop, techniques, rarity, yield, technological issues, appreciation by the Qianlong emperor.
Comparison of Falangcai on Porcelain and Glass
Falangcai (珐琅彩), often translated as "foreign colors," refers to a sophisticated enameling technique introduced to China from Europe during the Qing dynasty. It involved applying vibrant, opaque, and translucent enamel pigments—derived from glass fluxes mixed with metal oxides—onto substrates like porcelain or glass. These enamels were fired at low temperatures (around 600-800°C) to fuse them to the surface. The technique was pioneered under the Kangxi emperor (r. 1662-1722) with Jesuit influence, refined under Yongzheng (r. 1723-1735), and flourished under Qianlong (r. 1736-1795). Below is a structured comparison across the specified aspects, based on historical and technical analyses.
AspectFalangcai on PorcelainFalangcai on Glass
Period Range
Porcelain : Primarily Kangxi to Qianlong reigns (late 17th to late 18th century), with peak production in Yongzheng and early Qianlong. Earliest examples date to around 1710-1720, continuing sporadically into the 19th century but declining in quality.
Glass : Similar range: Kangxi to Qianlong, but with fewer examples overall. Production began around the same time as porcelain variants (early 18th century) but was more experimental and short-lived, largely ceasing by the mid-Qianlong era due to technical challenges.
Workshop
Porcelain : Imperial enameling workshops in the Forbidden City, Beijing. Plain white porcelain bodies were fired at Jingdezhen imperial kilns and shipped to Beijing for decoration. Involved court artists, Jesuit missionaries (e.g., Giuseppe Castiglione), and Chinese craftsmen.
Glass : Imperial Glassworks in the Forbidden City or Yuanming Yuan (Old Summer Palace), often overlapping with enameling workshops. Glass bodies were produced on-site, with enameling done by the same imperial teams, including Jesuits like Matteo Ripa for color development.
Techniques
Porcelain : Overglaze enameling on pre-fired porcelain: Pigments (e.g., ruby-red from gold nanoparticles in Purple of Cassius, opaque whites from lead-arsenic) mixed with fluxes and applied in layers. Multiple low-temperature firings in muffle kilns; techniques included shading for depth (imitating oil painting) and integration with underglaze elements. Later variants like yangcai (imitations at Jingdezhen) used similar methods but with local adaptations.
Glass : Enameling on glass bodies: Similar pigments, but applied to opaque or transparent glass (e.g., milk-white or colored). Required precise, sequential firings for each color due to varying melting points; techniques emphasized translucency and layering, often with gilding. More akin to European painted enamels on metal, but adapted for glass.
Rarity
Porcelain : Extremely rare: Only a few hundred authentic pieces survive, mostly in museums (e.g., National Palace Museum, Taipei). Produced exclusively for the court; high auction values (e.g., bowls fetching $25-30 million).
Glass : Even rarer: Fewer than 50 known examples, often unique or in pairs. Used as diplomatic gifts or imperial treasures; examples like Qianlong glass vases are considered "among China's greatest treasures."
Yield
Porcelain : Low yield: Small batches (e.g., 10-20 pieces per design), with high rejection rates due to firing inconsistencies. Imperial records note orders for specific items, but success depended on artisan skill; not mass-produced.
Glass : Very low yield: Experimental nature led to frequent failures; glass production itself was limited, with enameling adding more breakage. Archival orders (e.g., 1738 Qianlong directive) suggest prototypes yielded few viable pieces.
Technological Issues
Porcelain : Challenges included enamel adhesion to porcelain glaze (risk of cracking or bubbling), color stability (e.g., imported enamels vs. local "glass white" after 1728), and precise temperature control to avoid damaging the base. Lead-rich fluxes helped opacity but increased toxicity risks.
Glass : Greater difficulties: Glass softened at enamel firing temperatures, risking deformation or melting. Multi-color firings demanded exact sequencing; early reliance on imports (e.g., cobalt) and barium in compositions added variability. Overall, more prone to defects than porcelain.
Appreciation by the Qianlong Emperor
Porcelain : Highly favored: Qianlong revived falangcai styles, commissioning pieces with poetry, seals, and Western influences (e.g., via Castiglione). He viewed them as artistic pinnacles, often adding inscriptions; examples include bowls with landscape motifs symbolizing prosperity.
Glass : Also appreciated, but as innovative luxuries: He ordered glass falangcai for personal use and gifts, emphasizing technical mastery (e.g., 1738 pouch vase). Seen as symbols of imperial ingenuity, blending Chinese and foreign elements; fewer pieces reflect selective enthusiasm.
Comparison of Falangcai on Porcelain and Glass
Falangcai (珐琅彩), often translated as "foreign colors," refers to a sophisticated enameling technique introduced to China from Europe during the Qing dynasty. It involved applying vibrant, opaque, and translucent enamel pigments—derived from glass fluxes mixed with metal oxides—onto substrates like porcelain or glass. These enamels were fired at low temperatures (around 600-800°C) to fuse them to the surface. The technique was pioneered under the Kangxi emperor (r. 1662-1722) with Jesuit influence, refined under Yongzheng (r. 1723-1735), and flourished under Qianlong (r. 1736-1795). Below is a structured comparison across the specified aspects, based on historical and technical analyses.
AspectFalangcai on PorcelainFalangcai on Glass
Period Range
Porcelain : Primarily Kangxi to Qianlong reigns (late 17th to late 18th century), with peak production in Yongzheng and early Qianlong. Earliest examples date to around 1710-1720, continuing sporadically into the 19th century but declining in quality.
Glass : Similar range: Kangxi to Qianlong, but with fewer examples overall. Production began around the same time as porcelain variants (early 18th century) but was more experimental and short-lived, largely ceasing by the mid-Qianlong era due to technical challenges.
Workshop
Porcelain : Imperial enameling workshops in the Forbidden City, Beijing. Plain white porcelain bodies were fired at Jingdezhen imperial kilns and shipped to Beijing for decoration. Involved court artists, Jesuit missionaries (e.g., Giuseppe Castiglione), and Chinese craftsmen.
Glass : Imperial Glassworks in the Forbidden City or Yuanming Yuan (Old Summer Palace), often overlapping with enameling workshops. Glass bodies were produced on-site, with enameling done by the same imperial teams, including Jesuits like Matteo Ripa for color development.
Techniques
Porcelain : Overglaze enameling on pre-fired porcelain: Pigments (e.g., ruby-red from gold nanoparticles in Purple of Cassius, opaque whites from lead-arsenic) mixed with fluxes and applied in layers. Multiple low-temperature firings in muffle kilns; techniques included shading for depth (imitating oil painting) and integration with underglaze elements. Later variants like yangcai (imitations at Jingdezhen) used similar methods but with local adaptations.
Glass : Enameling on glass bodies: Similar pigments, but applied to opaque or transparent glass (e.g., milk-white or colored). Required precise, sequential firings for each color due to varying melting points; techniques emphasized translucency and layering, often with gilding. More akin to European painted enamels on metal, but adapted for glass.
Rarity
Porcelain : Extremely rare: Only a few hundred authentic pieces survive, mostly in museums (e.g., National Palace Museum, Taipei). Produced exclusively for the court; high auction values (e.g., bowls fetching $25-30 million).
Glass : Even rarer: Fewer than 50 known examples, often unique or in pairs. Used as diplomatic gifts or imperial treasures; examples like Qianlong glass vases are considered "among China's greatest treasures."
Yield
Porcelain : Low yield: Small batches (e.g., 10-20 pieces per design), with high rejection rates due to firing inconsistencies. Imperial records note orders for specific items, but success depended on artisan skill; not mass-produced.
Glass : Very low yield: Experimental nature led to frequent failures; glass production itself was limited, with enameling adding more breakage. Archival orders (e.g., 1738 Qianlong directive) suggest prototypes yielded few viable pieces.
Technological Issues
Porcelain : Challenges included enamel adhesion to porcelain glaze (risk of cracking or bubbling), color stability (e.g., imported enamels vs. local "glass white" after 1728), and precise temperature control to avoid damaging the base. Lead-rich fluxes helped opacity but increased toxicity risks.
Glass : Greater difficulties: Glass softened at enamel firing temperatures, risking deformation or melting. Multi-color firings demanded exact sequencing; early reliance on imports (e.g., cobalt) and barium in compositions added variability. Overall, more prone to defects than porcelain.
Appreciation by the Qianlong Emperor
Porcelain : Highly favored: Qianlong revived falangcai styles, commissioning pieces with poetry, seals, and Western influences (e.g., via Castiglione). He viewed them as artistic pinnacles, often adding inscriptions; examples include bowls with landscape motifs symbolizing prosperity.
Glass : Also appreciated, but as innovative luxuries: He ordered glass falangcai for personal use and gifts, emphasizing technical mastery (e.g., 1738 pouch vase). Seen as symbols of imperial ingenuity, blending Chinese and foreign elements; fewer pieces reflect selective enthusiasm.
1736-1758 Brushpot in Enamel Glass
2008 SOLD for HK$ 73M by Christie's
In the 35th year of his reign matching 1696 CE, the Kangxi emperor devoted a place in the Imperial City to the enamel painting of glass vessels. This workshop was operated by Jesuits. The transparency of the glass offers the possibility of a supreme refinement but the yield is very low. The themes are often European.
The pieces produced without bubble and without crack which deserve to receive the imperial mark are almost nonexistent under Kangxi and Yongzheng. All of the items listed below have the Qianlong imperial mark. The know-how ceases to be maintained after 1758 CE.
Brushpots in enameled glass are extremely rare.
A 8.5 cm high piece with square section and canted corners was sold for HK $ 68M by Christie's in Hong Kong on November 27, 2007, lot 1665. Its buyer, the Taiwanese businessman Robert Tsao, put it back on sale in the same room on May 27, 2008 as a charity lot to help the victims of the Sichuan earthquake. It was sold for HK $ 73M, lot 1525.
The pieces produced without bubble and without crack which deserve to receive the imperial mark are almost nonexistent under Kangxi and Yongzheng. All of the items listed below have the Qianlong imperial mark. The know-how ceases to be maintained after 1758 CE.
Brushpots in enameled glass are extremely rare.
A 8.5 cm high piece with square section and canted corners was sold for HK $ 68M by Christie's in Hong Kong on November 27, 2007, lot 1665. Its buyer, the Taiwanese businessman Robert Tsao, put it back on sale in the same room on May 27, 2008 as a charity lot to help the victims of the Sichuan earthquake. It was sold for HK $ 73M, lot 1525.
Qianlong Falangcai Glass Brushpot
2012 SOLD for HK$ 49M by Christie's
A 6.1 cm high cylindrical falangcai enamel glass brush pot was sold for HK $ 49M by Christie's on November 28, 2012 from a lower estimate of HK $ 6M, lot 2124.
It is finely painted with an extended enamel palette on a translucent white glass reminiscent of the color of jade. Its slightly curved cylindrical shape is exquisite.
It features an elderly scholar inspecting a landscape hand scroll with the help of an assistant and of a young boy while the group on the other side is centered on an European in Chinese robe, possibly in reference to the role of the Jesuits in the development of the enamel painting on glass and porcelain.
It is finely painted with an extended enamel palette on a translucent white glass reminiscent of the color of jade. Its slightly curved cylindrical shape is exquisite.
It features an elderly scholar inspecting a landscape hand scroll with the help of an assistant and of a young boy while the group on the other side is centered on an European in Chinese robe, possibly in reference to the role of the Jesuits in the development of the enamel painting on glass and porcelain.
1736-1758 Tobacco Bottle
2011 SOLD for HK$ 25.3M by Bonhams
Coming from America through Europe, the powdered tobacco was popular under the Qing. The Chinese did not smoke but snuffed it. To protect it from moisture, they kept it in small waterproof bottles, as if it were a medicine.
These small bottles, like the vases, are decorated with an infinite variety. The charming portraits of young white women or children appear as a thank you from China to the Europeans who had exported this new pleasure.
From May 28, 2010, Bonhams auctioned the Bloch collection of over 1700 snuff bottles.
A 4.22 cm high bottle in enameled copper with European subject and the mark of Qianlong was sold for HK $ 9.3M. It was in a great state of preservation, as if it had just come out of the imperial kilns.
Also with European subjects, a rectangular bottle is very high for its class, 8.07 cm, and displays Chinese landscapes in its lateral panels. It is made in the most exquisite material, the enameled glass. It was made in the first half of Qianlong reign and bears his imperial mark. It was sold for HK $ 25.3M from a lower estimate of HK $ 4.9M on November 28, 2011. This lot is illustrated in the post sale release shared by AuctionPublicity.
These small bottles, like the vases, are decorated with an infinite variety. The charming portraits of young white women or children appear as a thank you from China to the Europeans who had exported this new pleasure.
From May 28, 2010, Bonhams auctioned the Bloch collection of over 1700 snuff bottles.
A 4.22 cm high bottle in enameled copper with European subject and the mark of Qianlong was sold for HK $ 9.3M. It was in a great state of preservation, as if it had just come out of the imperial kilns.
Also with European subjects, a rectangular bottle is very high for its class, 8.07 cm, and displays Chinese landscapes in its lateral panels. It is made in the most exquisite material, the enameled glass. It was made in the first half of Qianlong reign and bears his imperial mark. It was sold for HK $ 25.3M from a lower estimate of HK $ 4.9M on November 28, 2011. This lot is illustrated in the post sale release shared by AuctionPublicity.
