Glass before 1900

Except otherwise stated, all results include the premium.
See also : Glass and crystal Ritual bronzes Qianlong Islam Egypt Bird
Chronology : 600 BCE - CE 1730-1739 1750-1759

Warring States Fang Hu
2020 SOLD for $ 8.3M by Sotheby's

Around 400 BCE the Zhou were forced to recognize the full independence of three kingdoms around Henan. Their inexorable decline opens the Warring States period which will put up to seven major states in competition. The Qin emerge victorious in 221 BCE and found the Chinese empire.

The wording Warring States wrongly evokes anarchy. This period instead opened up China to new life styles through the development of Confucianism and Taoism. The traditional sacrificial or funeral rites persist while taking into account the observation of nature and medicine. The taotie, which expressed the mystery of the spirits, disappear from the bronze vessels.

The technological evolution of bronze becomes multidisciplinary. In very thick walls, deep grooves are filled with precious materials that bring the colors : gold, silver, copper, malachite, turquoise. Bronze handles and zoomorphic elements are added.

The baluster-shaped hu is the most common vessel at that time for the ritual use of wine. On September 23, 2020, Sotheby's sold for $ 8.3M from a lower estimate of $ 2.5M a 35 cm high covered fang hu, lot 578. Please watch the video shared by the auction house. Fang means that the bottle has a square section. It is richly decorated with gold, silver and glass.

The gold was encrusted by hammering a sheet on a pattern of protruding knobs added after casting. The glass was fitted in diamond- or half diamond- shaped plaques of nine or six beads in hollow reserves between the gold bosses. Silver volutes decorate the dark brown bronze surface inlaid with green malachite. The slightly domed cover is surmounted by four animals in the round.

The use of glass, recently introduced in China, is extremely rare. The only other example from the same period of a bronze vessel inlaid with glass is a pair of hu discovered around 1930, known from photographs of the time.

Each glass bead has the shape of an eye, in a concentric polychromy. This design, which perhaps had magical significance, was produced for a very short period of time. Examples were found in the tomb of Marquis Yi of the principality of Zeng in Hubei, dated 433 BCE.

The sale of the fang hu, which had not been seen since 1938, allows a real rediscovery by the experts of the opulence reached in the time of the Warring States by the ritual bronzes of classical form.

Ritual Bronzes

From 600 BCE to CE

around 300 CE Cage Cup

1
2004 SOLD for £ 2.65M by Bonhams

The diatretum, cage cup in English, is a late Roman glass vessel. Its dual construction is made of an inner beaker and an outer cage. The cage stands out from the body of the cup to which it is attached by short bridges hidden within the decoration.

The protection of the cup by the cage is a technical feat of top luxury. Small examples could be used for liturgical drinking, and wider bowls as a hanging lamp projecting the pattern decoration of the cage. The Lycurgus cup, kept at the British museum, is the only complete cage cup with figures. Some other pieces are inscribed.

One of the largest examples, 18.2 cm wide and 10 cm high, was found in the Eastern empire while fragments of similar vessels were found in Germany. It had been carved from a thick blank of colorless glass. The cage is made of two large rows of adjacent circles. It has a copper alloy collar attached to the vessel below the rim and above the flange and a later lamp-hanger with three hooks. It is not inscribed.

It was sold for £ 2.3M by Sotheby's in 1997, lot 10 and for £ 2.65M by Bonhams on July 14, 2004, lot 18.

1 bis
for reference
Lycurgus Cup
British Museum

The image of the Lycurgus cup fitted with modern rim and foot is shared by Wikimedia with attribution Chappsnet, CC BY 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons.

Fatimid

Rock Crystal Ewer
2008 SOLD for £ 3.1M by Christie's

The Islamic art reached an extreme opulence before that irreparable cultural disaster that we called the Crusades. 1000 years ago, it was less than 400 years after the Hegira. The Fatimid dynasty, having come from North Africa, reigned until Egypt where it founded its capital, Cairo. The rock crystal ewer narrated here was made in that period.

In January, 2008, a small English auction house listed a French wine jug of the nineteenth century, estimated one hundred pounds.

It was indeed one of seven identified example of Fatimid rock crystal ewers from the Fatimid royal treasure of Cairo. It was carved in a block of flawless rock crystal, and is decorated with cheetahs in chains. The six other copies belong to museums. Each one is decorated with a different animal in relation to the theme of hunting.

It had been gold mounted in the middle of the nineteenth century by a French goldsmith who once worked for Queen Victoria. That explains the original error of description.

It was sold for £ 3.1M by Christie's on October 7, 2008.

Such pieces are fragile. The one that belonged to the Pitti palace was broken in 1998 beyond repair during a fall. Scarcity is increased by the disappearance of objects.

Special Report
Glass

Fatimid glass (roughly 909–1171, centered in Egypt with influence in Syria and North Africa) provided important foundational influences on the later development of Ayyubid and Mamluk enamelled and gilded glass, though the full polychrome enamelling technique itself emerged and matured primarily in the Syrian region during the late 12th century under the Ayyubids.
Key Fatimid Contributions to Glassmaking
Fatimid artisans excelled in glassblowing (free-blown and mold-blown vessels), producing clear or lightly tinted glass with a characteristic brownish or yellowish tinge in many examples. They refined workshop traditions in centers like Fustat (Old Cairo) and extended them to Syrian cities such as Aleppo.Major decorative techniques included:

Lustre painting: Application of metallic oxides (silver and copper) painted on the surface and fired in a reducing atmosphere to create an iridescent, metallic sheen. This was a hallmark of Fatimid (and earlier Abbasid) glass and pottery, building on possible Roman/Coptic precedents in Egypt. Lustre emphasized sparkle and luxury, often with vegetal, animal, or calligraphic motifs.
Painting with metallic oxides: Use of brushes or reed pens to apply pigments directly to the glass surface, a painted decoration tradition that continued into later periods.
Relief-cut or cameo glass: Deep carving or wheel-cutting to create raised designs, sometimes resembling rock crystal work (Fatimids were also masters of carved rock crystal ewers and vessels).
Polychrome elements: Some Fatimid glass featured applied trails, threads, or limited colored enamels/inserts, showing early experimentation with color on glass. Scholars note continuity of polychrome glass traditions from Fatimid times, with techniques like inlaid or colored decoration persisting as "proof of continuity" into Ayyubid and Mamluk periods.

Fatimid forms often included bottles, ewers, beakers, small bowls, and lamp fragments. Decoration frequently drew on courtly, vegetal (arabesques), and figural themes, reflecting the dynasty's opulent patronage in Egypt.
Transition and Influences on Ayyubid Enamelling (Late 12th–Mid-13th Century)
When the Ayyubids took control (Saladin ending Fatimid rule in Egypt in 1171), glassmaking workshops in Syria (Aleppo, Damascus, Raqqa) and Egypt continued with local expertise. There was clear continuity in glass fabrication and basic decoration techniques from Fatimid to Ayyubid periods.

Painting tradition: The Fatimid practice of applying pigments or metallic oxides with brushes/reed pens directly informed the cold application of enamels (powdered opaque colored glass mixed with a binder like gum arabic or oil) and gilding in the Ayyubid era. Enamelling is sometimes described as a development or "resurrection" of older painted techniques rather than a complete invention.
Technical base: Fatimid mastery of glass chemistry, fluxes (including shifts toward plant-ash recipes in some periods), and controlled firing laid groundwork for the more complex enamelling process. Ayyubid artisans in Syria began producing true enamelled and gilded beakers around the late 12th century, with vibrant colors (blues, reds, greens) and gilding—building on the lustre/painted heritage but shifting to opaque enamels that fused permanently.
Stylistic echoes: Vegetal scrolls, animal motifs, and courtly scenes in early Ayyubid enamelled glass echo Fatimid decorative repertoires, though Ayyubid pieces introduced greater figural complexity and multi-band friezes.

Enamelling and gilding are said to have "developed in the twelfth century in the Syrian area" and flourished in the final decades of Ayyubid power, with roots in Egyptian/Syrian painted traditions established under the Fatimids.
Links to Mamluk Glass (13th–14th Centuries)The Mamluks inherited and perfected this tradition after 1250, with seamless workshop continuity. Syrian production initially dominated, later shifting emphasis to Cairo.

Refinement of firing: Mamluk glassmakers mastered applying multiple enamels + gilding and fixing them in a single controlled low-temperature firing (or carefully managed process) without colors running or the vessel deforming. This built on Fatimid/Ayyubid empirical knowledge of pigment compatibility and kiln control.
Forms and uses: Iconic Mamluk mosque lamps (suspended, often with Qur'anic inscriptions) expanded from earlier lamp traditions possibly seen in Fatimid fragments. Secular beakers, bottles, and the tall-stemmed "tazza" or footed bowls (like the discussed Christie's 14th-century example) represent further elaboration, but the underlying blown glass expertise traces back through Ayyubid to Fatimid blowing skills.
Decoration: Multi-color polychrome enamels, gilding, animal combat/hunting scenes, lotus/vegetal arabesques, and inscriptions in Mamluk pieces show evolution, yet retain the luxurious, painterly quality rooted in Fatimid painted and lustre aesthetics. The "saqi" (cup-bearer) symbolism in stemmed forms has broader courtly precedents.

The stemmed chalice-like profile of the 14th-century Mamluk glass bowl (with raised boss/knop) has stronger direct ties to Ayyubid/Mamluk metalwork chalices than to Fatimid glass forms, which tended toward simpler beakers, ewers, or bottles without tall stems. However, the overall technical ambition—complex assembly of blown sections and stable polychrome decoration—relies on the continuous Syrian-Egyptian glassmaking heritage from Fatimid times.
Overall Place in the Evolution
Fatimid glass did not feature the mature multi-color enamelling/gilding seen in Ayyubid/Mamluk "Great Era" pieces, but it supplied:

Workshop continuity in Egypt and Syria.
Expertise in painted decoration and metallic effects (lustre as a precursor to gilding sparkle).
Refined glassblowing and material knowledge that enabled the technical breakthrough of stable enamels.

This foundation allowed Ayyubid artisans to innovate enamelling in Syria (late 12th century onward), which Mamluks then scaled and refined into one of the pinnacles of Islamic decorative arts—fragile yet opulent vessels prized for courtly display and liturgical use (mosque lamps).
In the context of the 14th-century Mamluk stemmed footed bowl, its clear glass body, polychrome enamels, gilding, and elaborate motifs represent the mature end of a chain beginning with Fatimid painted/lustre traditions, transmitted and transformed through Ayyubid Syrian workshops, and elevated under Mamluk patronage. Survival rates are low across all periods due to fragility, but Fatimid pieces underscore the deep roots of this luxurious glass lineage.

Special Report
Ayyubid

Ayyubid glass (roughly 1171–1260 in Egypt and Syria) served as the direct precursor to the sophisticated Mamluk enamelled and gilded glass tradition that peaked in the 13th–14th centuries. The technique of painting with enamels (powdered colored glass) and gold on blown glass bodies originated in the Syrian region during the 12th century and flourished in the late Ayyubid period (late 12th to mid-13th century), particularly in workshops in Syria (Aleppo, Damascus) with some production in Egypt.
Development of Techniques
Enamelling and gilding built on earlier Islamic glass traditions, including Fatimid-era (10th–12th century) painted or luster-decorated glass, but represented a significant innovation. Artisans applied enamels and gold using an oil-based medium with brushes or reed pens. The challenge lay in firing: each color and the gold required different temperatures to fuse without running or deforming the vessel. Ayyubid and early Mamluk makers likely refined a multi-color single-firing or carefully controlled process, a technical breakthrough that allowed vibrant, stable polychrome decoration. This mastery continued and was perfected under the Mamluks.
The glass body was typically free-blown clear or lightly tinted (sometimes with a brownish tinge and bubbles), continuing Syrian expertise in glassblowing.
Key Forms and Decoration in Ayyubid Glass
The most characteristic Ayyubid enamelled and gilded pieces are beakers (cylindrical or slightly tapering bodies with flaring necks or rims). These often feature:

Figural scenes: Horsemen (including polo players or hunters), riders, animals, or even Christian-themed motifs in some examples (e.g., the Baltimore beakers pair).
Vegetal and arabesque scrolls, inscriptions (sometimes in thuluth or naskh scripts), and heraldic elements.
Polychrome enamels in blues, reds, greens, whites, and gilding for highlights.

Other forms include bottles, carafes, small bowls, and early mosque lamps or lamp fragments. Decoration emphasized courtly life, hunting, and symbolic imagery, similar to contemporary Ayyubid metalwork and manuscripts.Ayyubid pieces from the late 12th–mid-13th century often show a transitional style blending Fatimid influences with new Syrian developments, including more elaborate figural work and multi-color enamels. Excavated examples from sites like Samsat (Turkey) confirm production and use in elite contexts during the early 13th century.
Transition to Mamluk Glass
The shift from Ayyubid to Mamluk (after 1250 in Egypt, spreading to Syria) was gradual, especially around 1250–1260. Some pieces are dated to the "Ayyubid-Mamluk transition" because they combine Ayyubid stylistic elements (e.g., certain inscriptions or figural schemes) with emerging Mamluk features. Production continued seamlessly in Syrian workshops initially, then increasingly shifted toward Egypt (Cairo) as the Mamluk capital grew in importance during the 14th century.
The Mamluk stemmed footed bowl (like the Christie's 2026 lot with its tall stem, raised boss/knop, and everted bowl) has roots in this period but represents a more specialized, architecturally complex form that became prominent in the 13th–14th centuries. Ayyubid precursors were generally simpler: beakers without tall stems, or basic footed vessels. Metalwork prototypes (e.g., chalices or cups with knops) likely influenced the stemmed glass forms that appear more fully in Mamluk secular ware.
Secular uses dominated both periods—beakers and bowls for elite drinking, feasting, or display—while mosque lamps (often with Qur'anic inscriptions) emerged or expanded in the late Ayyubid/early Mamluk era for liturgical purposes.
Comparison to the 2026 Christie's Mamluk Bowl

Ayyubid precursors tend to be beaker-shaped or simpler bottles/bowls with less emphasis on complex stemmed profiles.
The tall-stemmed "tazza" or goblet-like form with a central boss (seen in the Toledo/Christie's piece) is rarer and more characteristic of 13th–14th-century Mamluk elaboration, though it builds directly on Ayyubid blown-glass expertise and enamelling/gilding skills.
Decoration in both includes animal combat, vegetal motifs (lotus, palmettes), and arabesques; Mamluk pieces often show greater refinement in multi-band friezes and integration of Ilkhanid/Chinese influences (e.g., lotus flowers) after the Mongol invasions.

Ayyubid enamelled glass is rarer in complete high-quality survivals than Mamluk examples, partly because production scaled up under the Mamluks before declining in the late 14th–early 15th century due to economic and political factors.
Overall, the Ayyubid period established enamelled and gilded glass as a luxury art form in Syria and Egypt—a "great era" of innovation that the Mamluks inherited, expanded (especially in scale and courtly patronage), and brought to technical and artistic heights seen in pieces like the 14th-century stemmed bowl. This tradition influenced European glassmaking (e.g., Venetian) and remains one of the most celebrated achievements in Islamic decorative arts.

Special Report
Enameling

The enameling technique on Islamic glass—applying powdered colored glass (enamels) and gold to a blown glass surface, then firing to fuse them—developed primarily in Syria during the late 12th century and reached its technical and artistic peak under the Ayyubids (late 12th–mid-13th century) and Mamluks (13th–14th centuries) in Syria and Egypt.
Precursors and Origins (Pre-12th Century to Early Ayyubid)

Earlier Islamic glass decoration relied on cutting, molding, luster-painting (metallic oxides applied and fired for iridescent effects), or simple painting with metallic oxides. These were common in Fatimid Egypt and Syria (10th–12th centuries).
True enameling (using opaque powdered glass colors) on glass likely emerged in the late 12th century in Syria (possibly Raqqa or other northern Syrian centers), building on local glassblowing expertise and possibly influenced by earlier Byzantine or Fatimid painted traditions. It was not a sudden invention but an evolution from Fatimid practices.
Initial examples often featured simpler decoration: gilding (gold applied via powder or leaf mixed with a binder like gum arabic) and limited enamel colors on beakers, bottles, or small vessels. Figural or vegetal motifs appeared early, painted with brushes or reed pens in an oil- or gum-based medium.

Ayyubid Period (c. 1171–1260): The "Great Era" Begins

Enameling and gilding flourished in the final decades of Ayyubid rule, especially in Syrian workshops (Aleppo, Damascus). This is often called the start of the "Great Era of Enameled and Gilded Glass."
Key developments:
- Application: Enamels (powdered opaque glass mixed with pigments) and gold were painted cold onto the clear or lightly tinted blown glass body.
- Two main enamel types emerged:
  - Pre-fritted enamels: Pigments and fluxes melted into a colored glass (frit), then crushed and applied—more stable.
  - Cold-mixed enamels: Colorants mixed directly with glass powder without prior fritting (e.g., some reds using hematite).
- Colors included blues, reds, greens, whites, and yellows. Gilding provided glittering highlights.
- Firing: Likely involved multiple or sequential firings at controlled low temperatures to fuse enamels without deforming the vessel. Different colors required different firing temperatures due to varying chemical compositions (e.g., lead content affecting softening points), so artisans had to manage risks of running or warping.
Typical forms: Cylindrical beakers with flaring rims, bottles, and early lamp fragments. Decoration often included horsemen, hunters, courtly scenes, animals, and inscriptions—reflecting Ayyubid metalwork and manuscript influences.
This period established polychrome enameling as a luxury technique for elite secular ware, with some overlap into early liturgical forms.

Transition and Mamluk Refinement (Mid-13th to 14th Century)

The shift from Ayyubid to Mamluk rule (after 1250) was seamless in Syrian workshops, with production continuing and expanding. As Cairo became the Mamluk capital in the 14th century, workshops increasingly operated in Egypt.
Major technical breakthrough (most associated with early Mamluk innovation, though roots in late Ayyubid):
- Artisans mastered applying multiple colors + gilding simultaneously and fixing them in a single controlled firing. This minimized reheating cycles, which risked deforming the delicate blown glass body.
- The process: Decorate the blank vessel (sometimes before adding handles or other applied elements to avoid slumping), reattach via pontil (double pontil marks are characteristic), and reintroduce to the furnace for precise low-temperature firing. Enamels fused without running into each other due to careful composition control and temperature management.
- This allowed vibrant, stable polychrome decoration with greater complexity—multi-band friezes, intricate arabesques, animal combat, lotus motifs (Ilkhanid/Chinese influence post-Mongol era), and bold gilding.
Gilding specifics: Gold was finely ground (often from leaf), mixed with an organic binder (e.g., gum arabic), applied, and fused. Analytical studies show strong adhesion mechanisms involving diffusion or chemical bonding during firing.
Forms expanded: Tall stemmed "tazza"-like bowls (like the discussed Christie's example with its raised boss/knop), large serving bowls, beakers, bottles, and especially iconic mosque lamps (suspended shades with Qur'anic inscriptions for liturgical use in mosques and madrasas). Secular courtly pieces featured feasting, hunting, or heraldic motifs.
Peak quality: 13th–mid-14th century pieces show the highest refinement in color range, detail, and durability of enamels.

Later Evolution and Decline (Late 14th–Early 15th Century)

Production continued into the 14th century with high output, but quality and scale declined in the late 14th century due to economic pressures, shifting patronage, and disruptions (e.g., Timur's invasions affecting Syrian centers).
By the early 15th century, workshops largely closed; lower-quality or simplified enameling persisted briefly in Cairo before ending.
The technique influenced European glassmaking, notably Venetian enamelled glass (e.g., Aldrevandin beakers from the late 13th–14th centuries), though Venetian versions often used different compositions, thicker enamels, and independent firing approaches.

Overall Technical Legacy
The evolution transformed enameling from a risky, limited-color process (early Ayyubid/Syrian) into a sophisticated, multi-color single-firing mastery (Mamluk peak). This required deep empirical knowledge of glass chemistry, pigment compatibility, and kiln control—without modern thermometers. The result was one of the most celebrated achievements in Islamic decorative arts: fragile yet opulent vessels blending technical virtuosity with courtly or religious symbolism.
In the context of the 14th-century Mamluk stemmed footed bowl (Christie's lot), its multi-band polychrome enamels, gilding, and complex stemmed form exemplify the mature Mamluk phase—building directly on Ayyubid foundations but benefiting from the refined single-firing capability that allowed such elaborate, non-running decoration on a structurally ambitious shape. Survival of complete examples remains rare due to the inherent fragility and historical disruptions.

Mamluk

The gilding and enamelling of glass vessels appeared in Persia around 1200 CE. These exquisite pieces are extremely fragile. Very few are dated.

A 28 cm high baluster-shaped bottle with a flared neck is kept by the Furusiyya Art Foundation. It is decorated with scenes from the life of a Christian monastic community. This Christian theme on a vessel of Islamic design can only be correlated with the Mamluk revolution which overthrew in 1250 in Egypt the Ayyubid dynasty unable to resist the seventh crusade.

The revolution was social : the Mamluk were soldiers of servile origin. Louis IX allied with them temporarily in 1252 in Syria while they were endeavoring to reconquer Damascus.

On October 27, 2020, Sotheby's sold for £ 840K a 24 cm high bottle in same shape and technique as the Furusiyya specimen, lot 449. Blue, red and white enamels had been applied after the gilding on a brownish-yellow glass.

The body and neck are adorned with a frieze inscribed in Islamic letters in praise of an unidentified sultan. The shoulder is decorated with intricate foliate figures and with four golden fish spread around the circumference. When the vessel is filled with clear water, this arrangement gives the illusion of the evolution of the fish in an aquarium. Under these conditions the gilding brings a sparkling effect on the scales.

Such a piece is extremely rare. Another example of the same shape is known, smaller and in blue glass. These vessels were used to clean the hands during the meal. Water was poured over a brass basin silver-inlaid with swimming fish.

Mamluk Glass Overall
Breakthrough and evolution of techniques: Enamelled and gilded glass emerged as a major innovation in the Syrian region around the 12th century (late Ayyubid era), flourishing under the Mamluks (1250–1517) in workshops in Syria (e.g., Damascus, Aleppo) and Egypt (especially Cairo after it became the capital). Production peaked in the 13th–14th centuries with refined multi-color enamelling and gilding. By the late 14th century, output declined due to shifting patronage, economic factors, and possibly Timur's invasions disrupting Syrian workshops; it largely ended by the early 15th century, with limited lower-quality continuation into the 15th century in Cairo. Earlier Islamic glass focused more on cutting, molding, or luster; enamelling/gilding represented a new painted decorative height, requiring precise kiln control.
Liturgical and other uses: The most iconic forms are large suspended mosque lamps (actually lampshades over an inner oil/wick container), often inscribed with Qur'anic verses or patron names, used in mosques, madrasas, and mausoleums. Secular vessels like beakers, bottles, bowls, and flasks served courtly, ceremonial, or domestic purposes (e.g., as showpieces, gifts, or for elite feasting/hunting scenes). Decoration frequently included animal motifs, arabesques, and calligraphy. Many pieces had religious or princely associations, though secular items like this footed bowl were prized for display.
Gilding and enameling: These were labor-intensive and fragile processes. Enamels (colored powdered glass) and gold were applied cold then fired; the challenge of compatible firing temperatures for different colors/gold without warping the vessel highlights Mamluk mastery. Colors often included blues, reds, greens, and whites, with gold for luxury.
Rarity: Extremely rare due to fragility (glass survival rate is low), complex production, and historical disruptions. Complete high-quality 14th-century pieces with elaborate decoration are scarce; many museum examples are fragmentary or lamps. Secular bowls like this one are particularly sought-after.
Top auction results: Mamluk enamelled glass commands premium prices as one of the rarest Islamic art categories.

A 14th-century Mamluk mosque lamp (made for Saif ad-din Sarghitmish, Egypt or Syria, ca. 1351–1358) sold for £5.13 million (approx. $6.57 million) at Bonhams London in 2024, setting a world record for any glass object at auction.
A 14th-century enamelled glass bucket (Syria or Egypt) fetched £1.55 million (approx. $3.2 million) at Sotheby's in 2009.
High-end footed bowls, beakers, and lamps regularly achieve six- to seven-figure results when in good condition with strong provenance, reflecting collector demand for this "Golden Age" of Islamic glassmaking.

The 2026 Christie's footed bowl exemplifies the technical and artistic zenith of 14th-century Mamluk glass, blending Syrian production expertise with opulent courtly aesthetics. Its sale context underscores the category's enduring market strength.

1325-1350 footed glass
2026 SOLD for £ 5.5M by Christie's

A Mamluk footed glass was sold for £ 5.5M from a lower estimate of £ 1.2M by Christie's on April 30, 2026, lot 25. The video is shared by the auction house.

The specific lot is an important Mamluk gilded and enamelled glass footed bowl, probably produced in Mamluk Syria during the second quarter of the 14th century (circa 1325–1350). It comes from the Toledo Museum of Art collection (deaccessioned for acquisitions fund) with strong provenance tracing back to 19th-century European collections, including Jules-Albert Goupil and Friedrich Sarre.
Key Features, Shape, and Dimensions

Shape: A footed bowl with a long stem rising from a flared foot, broadening into an everted wide bowl. The stem includes a raised boss in the middle. The foot is a later replacement (likely 19th century) and bears an engraved thuluth inscription (possibly repeating the sultanic epithet al-‘alim, “the learned”), interrupted by blue roundels containing eagles.
Dimensions: Height 12 7/8 inches (32.7 cm); diameter 8 inches (20.5 cm).
Key decorative features: The clear glass body features intricate bands of multicolored enamels (blue, red, green, yellow, white) and gilding. Motifs include:
- Below the rim: Six blue roundels with zoomorphic arabesques, alternating with panels of scrolling vegetal grounds, lotus palmettes, and elegant animal combat scenes.
- A narrower band with scrolling floral decoration and six small blue roundels showing an eagle swooping onto a waterfowl.
- The bowl's lower section: A wide band of scrolling vegetal motifs with lotus flowers and rosettes, punctuated by three floral arabesque roundels.
- The stem: Vegetal arabesques around the raised boss.
The overall effect is vibrant and luxurious, with figural (animals, combat) and vegetal elements typical of high-end Mamluk secular or courtly ware.

Techniques for Glass and Decoration

Glass body: Free-blown or mold-blown clear (colorless) glass, a continuation of refined Islamic glassmaking traditions.
Decoration technique: Enamelling and gilding applied to the surface. Powdered opaque glass (enamels) mixed with an oil-based medium was painted on using a brush or reed pen, along with gold. The vessel was then fired in a kiln to vitrify the enamels and fix the gilding without melting or deforming the glass body. Mamluk artisans likely mastered a sophisticated single-firing process for multiple colors (each requiring different temperatures) to prevent running or distortion—a technical feat that added to the objects' rarity and prestige. Gilding provided glittering highlights, while enamels delivered opaque, vivid colors.

This built on earlier Syrian developments from the Ayyubid period (12th–13th centuries) but reached its peak under the Mamluks.

The Christie's 2026 lot (the Toledo deaccessioned piece, height 32.7 cm, diameter 20.5 cm) has a later replacement foot, most likely added in the 19th century (possibly during its time in the Jules-Albert Goupil collection, where the 1888 catalogue already described a similar piece's foot as "moderne"). Scholars assume the original foot was a flat splayed foot matching the tall stem with its characteristic raised boss (knop) in the middle.
Assumed Original Shape
Experts base this on the small surviving group of comparable 13th–14th-century Mamluk/Syrian enamelled glass stemmed vessels:

The overall silhouette is described as iconic, evoking the saqi (cup-bearer) symbol from Mamluk textiles and metalwork.
It is sometimes called a tazza (from Arabic tas, meaning bowl).
Production likely involved blowing the bowl, stem (with applied boss), and foot separately, then reheating and fusing them.
Many comparables (e.g., Metropolitan Museum of Art 23.189 and 91.1.1538; British Museum 1924,0125.1; Royal Ontario Museum 924.26.3) share a wide everted bowl atop a long cylindrical stem with boss, ending in a flat splayed foot.
Metalwork prototypes, such as the 13th–14th-century "Fano Cup" (Bibliothèque nationale de France) and a V&A chalice (c. 1300–50), also feature a knop on the stem.
Some examples in the group suggest a possible original lid (based on rim edge shapes), though this is not confirmed for the Christie's piece. The vessel was probably made in sections and joined.

The current replacement foot carries an engraved thuluth inscription (repeating the epithet al-‘alim, "the learned") interrupted by blue roundels with eagles, which may or may not replicate an original decorative scheme.
Liturgical Use?
There is no strong assumption of liturgical use for this form. Catalogue notes emphasize its secular, courtly character:

Animal combat scenes (lions attacking antelopes), hunting motifs, vegetal arabesques with lotus palmettes (influenced by Ilkhanid/Chinese motifs), and courtly symbolism (saqi association) point to elite domestic or ceremonial display, possibly as a container for fruit, sweetmeats, or as a showpiece for feasting.
Mamluk glass overall includes both religious items (mosque lamps with Qur'anic inscriptions) and secular vessels. This stemmed bowl belongs firmly in the latter category, illuminating Mamluk court life rather than sultanate piety or mosque illumination.

It is not reconstructed as a mosque lamp. Mosque lamps have a very different profile: bulbous body, flaring neck, suspension handles, and often a footed base for stability when suspended by chains (an inner oil container sat inside).
Comparison with the Sotheby's 2023 Example
The Sotheby's 2023 lot ("An important large Mamluk gilded and enamelled footed glass bowl," Egypt or Syria, 14th century) is a different form and scale:

Shape: Deep rounded (bowl-like) body on a splayed incurved foot with a raised flange at the rim. It lacks the tall stem and central boss entirely. Maximum height only 14 cm; maximum diameter 29.5 cm — wider but much shorter and squatter than the Christie's piece.
Foot: Described as original (no mention of replacement or restoration in the lot notes). It is low and integrated, giving a more stable, bowl-on-pedestal appearance without the elongated "chalice-like" stem.
Decoration: Thick glass with brownish tinge; interior features blue roundels with animals (peacocks, lions attacking antelopes) and foliate motifs, plus scrolling palmettes and zoomorphic vines. Remnants of gilding. More compact friezes compared to the multi-band, highly detailed exterior decoration on the Christie's bowl.
Technique and date: Same enamelling + gilding on blown glass, 14th century.
Use: Again, no liturgical indication; appears as a large serving or display bowl.

Key differences:

The Christie's piece has a tall stemmed profile (more goblet/tazza-like, height-dominant), while the Sotheby's is a low, broad footed bowl (width-dominant, lower center of gravity).
The tall stem with boss makes the Christie's example rarer and more architecturally complex (separate sections fused), evoking metalwork chalices.
Both are secular high-end court ware, but the stemmed form is especially uncommon and symbolically charged (saqi imagery), whereas the Sotheby's type aligns more closely with simpler footed serving vessels.

In the broader corpus of Mamluk enamelled glass, the tall-stemmed group (including the Christie's lot) represents a specialized, elite variant that bridges Ayyubid-to-Mamluk transitions in Syrian workshops (second quarter 14th century). The low-footed broad bowl is another variation of secular tableware. Neither form is typically linked to mosque use, unlike the iconic suspended lamps that define "liturgical" Mamluk glass.
These pieces highlight the technical sophistication of Mamluk glassmakers in Syria (and to some extent Egypt), who excelled at multi-color enamelling and gilding in a single or controlled firing process — a breakthrough that allowed vibrant, non-running decoration on fragile blown forms. Survival of complete examples, especially stemmed ones with complex profiles, remains exceptionally rare.

The tall-stemmed Mamluk enamelled and gilded glass footed bowls (such as the Christie's 2026 Toledo piece with its raised boss/knop on the stem) drew direct formal inspiration from contemporary or slightly earlier Mamluk and late Ayyubid metalwork chalices and cups. This cross-media influence reflects the shared courtly aesthetic and workshop practices in Syria and Egypt during the 13th–14th centuries.
Key Metalwork Prototypes and Influences

The "Fano Cup" (Bibliothèque nationale de France, Ayyubid Jazīrah or Syria, c. 1250): This inlaid brass cup with a tall stem, central knop (raised boss), and foot is one of the clearest metal prototypes. It features elaborate inlay (silver, copper, gold) with figural, vegetal, and calligraphic decoration. Scholars frequently cite it as a model for the glass stemmed vessels, particularly the characteristic knop that appears on nearly all surviving 14th-century glass examples in this group. The Fano Cup's overall silhouette—long stem rising to a bowl—mirrors the glass tazza-like forms.
Other metalwork chalices and stem cups: Similar stemmed metal vessels (often called chalices, goblets, or saqi cups) from the Ayyubid-to-Mamluk transition and early Mamluk period feature a raised boss on the stem for structural and decorative emphasis. These were typically made of brass or bronze with silver/gold inlay, engraved arabesques, animal motifs, and inscriptions. Examples include pieces associated with Ayyubid rulers (e.g., from Aleppo/Damascus workshops) and early Mamluk patronage. The knop served both functional (reinforcement at the join) and aesthetic purposes, evoking luxury and stability.

Glassmakers adapted these metal forms because:

Metal prototypes were more durable and common in elite settings.
The stemmed profile with knop evoked the saqi (cup-bearer) blazon or emblem, a frequent motif in Mamluk heraldry symbolizing service at court (wine or sherbet service). This silhouette appears repeatedly in Mamluk textiles, metalwork, and blazons, linking the glass vessels to courtly identity and feasting rituals.

Shared Features and Cross-Influences

Shape: Tall stem with central raised boss (knop), splayed or flared foot, and broad everted bowl. Glass versions were often blown in sections (bowl, stem with applied boss, foot) then fused—mirroring how metal examples were assembled or cast/turned.
Decoration: Both media featured multi-band friezes with vegetal arabesques, lotus palmettes (post-Ilkhanid Chinese influence), animal combat/hunting scenes, roundels, and inscriptions (thuluth script). In metal, these were achieved via inlay and engraving; in glass, via enamels and gilding. The painterly quality of enamelled glass often echoed the rich polychromy of inlaid metalwork.
Function and symbolism: Secular/courtly use for display, serving sweetmeats, fruit, or liquids during feasts. Neither was primarily liturgical (unlike mosque lamps). The chalice-like form conveyed status, luxury, and the refined court culture shared across media.
Technical dialogue: Metalworkers and glassmakers operated in overlapping urban centers (Damascus, Aleppo, later Cairo). Motifs and forms circulated freely, with glass imitating the opulence of metal while offering translucency and color effects unattainable in brass.

Comparison to the Discussed Glass Bowl
The Christie's stemmed bowl