Ancient England
Portraits of Royals by van Dyck are in British Royals.
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See also : British Royals Manuscript Judaica Literature Books Incunabula 17th century books Poems and lyrics Political writing Sciences 1600-1800 Astronomy Physics Silverware
Chronology : 1460-1479 1540-1569 1620-1629 1680-1699 1700-1709
Except otherwise stated, all results include the premium.
See also : British Royals Manuscript Judaica Literature Books Incunabula 17th century books Poems and lyrics Political writing Sciences 1600-1800 Astronomy Physics Silverware
Chronology : 1460-1479 1540-1569 1620-1629 1680-1699 1700-1709
1189 Pentateuch
2015 SOLD for $ 3.6M by Sotheby's
The Pentateuch or Torah consists of the five books of the Law attributed to Moses. They are the basic texts of the Hebrew Bible.
The first sale of the Valmadonna Trust Library by Sotheby's in New York on December 22, 2015 includes European manuscripts among the oldest that survived the persecutions. They have the usual original textual additions : the major commentaries or Masorah magna in the header and footer and the minor commentaries or Masorah parva in the intervals between the columns.
One of them is dated exactly of 15 Tammuz 4949, corresponding to July 2, 1189 CE. This manuscript of 482 pages 28 x 31 cm is made of the Pentateuch, the Haftarot (books of the Prophets) and the Five Songs. Scholars locate it in England through paleographic considerations and by the presence of Anglo-Norman words in some marginal notes.
1189 was a terrible year for the English Jews who were victims of riots at the coronation of Richard I. Their manuscripts were considered as a wealth and were looted. Very few Jewish belongings escaped this event followed a century later by the expulsion of the Jews from England.
This highly rare medieval English Pentateuch in beautiful condition was sold for $ 3.6M from a lower estimate of $ 2M, lot 7.
The first sale of the Valmadonna Trust Library by Sotheby's in New York on December 22, 2015 includes European manuscripts among the oldest that survived the persecutions. They have the usual original textual additions : the major commentaries or Masorah magna in the header and footer and the minor commentaries or Masorah parva in the intervals between the columns.
One of them is dated exactly of 15 Tammuz 4949, corresponding to July 2, 1189 CE. This manuscript of 482 pages 28 x 31 cm is made of the Pentateuch, the Haftarot (books of the Prophets) and the Five Songs. Scholars locate it in England through paleographic considerations and by the presence of Anglo-Norman words in some marginal notes.
1189 was a terrible year for the English Jews who were victims of riots at the coronation of Richard I. Their manuscripts were considered as a wealth and were looted. Very few Jewish belongings escaped this event followed a century later by the expulsion of the Jews from England.
This highly rare medieval English Pentateuch in beautiful condition was sold for $ 3.6M from a lower estimate of $ 2M, lot 7.
That last just sold for $3 million pic.twitter.com/ZDAe1qPhit
— Mitch Fraas (@MitchFraas) December 22, 2015
1297 The Magna Carta
2007 SOLD for $ 21.3 M by Sotheby's
The Magna Carta contains the seeds of modern political regimes and announces the decline of the absolutisms.
In 1215 the English barons revolted against King John. Financial and military demands had not prevented the scathing failures. In a situation of civil war, the king is forced to accept the Magna Carta by which the barons take control of the taxes.
The Magna Carta undergoes several modifications, because the political circumstances change. De facto rejected by King John, the Council of Barons, which was the forerunner of a parliamentary regime, was canceled in 1216 when the child Henry III acceded to the throne. In 1225 Henry III simplified the Magna Carta to facilitate its legal application.
The idea of a Parliament is gaining ground. Edward I takes the habit of summoning his advisers to make decisions concerning taxes and their collection. The operating rules are defined from 1283. It only remained to give force of law to the Magna Carta, which the king assisted by the Parliament solemnly does on October 12, 1297. It is stipulated in 1300 that a copy will be available in each county to be read four times a year.
17 manuscript copies from the 13th century have survived. 15 of them are in British institutions and one in the Australian Parliament.
The 17th document is a copy from 1297. It was bought in 1984 by the US billionaire Ross Perot, who entrusted it for display at the National Archives in Washington DC. It was sold for $ 21.3M by Sotheby's on December 18, 2007. Its new owner, David M. Rubenstein, returned it to the Archives for a new long-term loan. The image is shared by Wikimedia.
In 1215 the English barons revolted against King John. Financial and military demands had not prevented the scathing failures. In a situation of civil war, the king is forced to accept the Magna Carta by which the barons take control of the taxes.
The Magna Carta undergoes several modifications, because the political circumstances change. De facto rejected by King John, the Council of Barons, which was the forerunner of a parliamentary regime, was canceled in 1216 when the child Henry III acceded to the throne. In 1225 Henry III simplified the Magna Carta to facilitate its legal application.
The idea of a Parliament is gaining ground. Edward I takes the habit of summoning his advisers to make decisions concerning taxes and their collection. The operating rules are defined from 1283. It only remained to give force of law to the Magna Carta, which the king assisted by the Parliament solemnly does on October 12, 1297. It is stipulated in 1300 that a copy will be available in each county to be read four times a year.
17 manuscript copies from the 13th century have survived. 15 of them are in British institutions and one in the Australian Parliament.
The 17th document is a copy from 1297. It was bought in 1984 by the US billionaire Ross Perot, who entrusted it for display at the National Archives in Washington DC. It was sold for $ 21.3M by Sotheby's on December 18, 2007. Its new owner, David M. Rubenstein, returned it to the Archives for a new long-term loan. The image is shared by Wikimedia.
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1477 The Canterbury Tales printed by Caxton
1998 SOLD for £ 4.6M by Christie's
William Caxton travels in the service of Edward IV. His function is both diplomatic and commercial, and in 1462 he is appointed governor of the Company of Merchant Adventurers of London, acting in Flanders.
He is a very important promoter of English literature, himself making numerous translations of secular texts. He understands the cultural incentive of the printing press during a visit to Cologne in 1471. He immediately transfers a printing press to Bruges. Translated from French by Caxton and printed in Flanders in 1473, the Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye is the very first incunabula in the English language. A copy was sold for £ 1.08M by Sotheby's on July 15, 2014.
When Caxton returned to London in 1476, his new expertise was eagerly awaited. He instals a printing press in Westminster, the first of its kind in England.
His passion for English literature is heightened by this possibility of dissemination. He is a great admirer of Chaucer, which he publishes without resorting to sponsors. Chaucer's masterpiece, The Canterbury Tales, becomes in 1477 the first masterpiece of English printing. This achievement is all the more meritorious as Caxton later complained of the poor literary quality of the manuscript at his disposal.
About ten copies of this original edition have survived, plus three important fragments. The only complete copy, which had belonged to King George III, is in the British Library. The illuminated copy kept in Oxford has been completed.
On July 8, 1998 at lot 2, Christie's sold for £ 4.6M the only copy in private hands, which is also one of the most complete with only 4 lacking leaves.
He is a very important promoter of English literature, himself making numerous translations of secular texts. He understands the cultural incentive of the printing press during a visit to Cologne in 1471. He immediately transfers a printing press to Bruges. Translated from French by Caxton and printed in Flanders in 1473, the Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye is the very first incunabula in the English language. A copy was sold for £ 1.08M by Sotheby's on July 15, 2014.
When Caxton returned to London in 1476, his new expertise was eagerly awaited. He instals a printing press in Westminster, the first of its kind in England.
His passion for English literature is heightened by this possibility of dissemination. He is a great admirer of Chaucer, which he publishes without resorting to sponsors. Chaucer's masterpiece, The Canterbury Tales, becomes in 1477 the first masterpiece of English printing. This achievement is all the more meritorious as Caxton later complained of the poor literary quality of the manuscript at his disposal.
About ten copies of this original edition have survived, plus three important fragments. The only complete copy, which had belonged to King George III, is in the British Library. The illuminated copy kept in Oxford has been completed.
On July 8, 1998 at lot 2, Christie's sold for £ 4.6M the only copy in private hands, which is also one of the most complete with only 4 lacking leaves.
1547 Portrait of Katherine Parr
2023 SOLD for £ 3.44M by Sotheby's
Katherine Parr was born while her mother was a lady in waiting to Queen Catherine of Aragon, the first wife and consort queen of King Henry VIII. Her first name was taken from that queen who was also her godmother but it must not be spelled Catherine as she was using KP for her initials.
The fifth consort Catherine Howard was beheaded in 1542. Widowed for the second time in February 1543, Katherine was part of the household of Princess Mary, the daughter of Henry and the late and divorced Catherine of Aragon.
The ailing King Henry married Katherine in July 1543. A political and intellectual powerful figure in her own right and a religious and educational patron close to Protestantism, the new Queen was instrumental of reconciling Henry with his three children who will later reign in their turn, Edward, Mary and Elizabeth.
Henry died in January 1547. Katherine withdraw from the court, made her fourth wedding and died in her first childbirth in 1548.
A portrait in three quarter length of Katherine was probably painted in 1547 while she was the queen dowager, before the secrecy of her fourth marriage was broken. The lavishly dressed queen is identified by a crown topped brooch on her chest which is well described in the inventories of the jewels of Queens Catherine Howard and Katherine Parr. The artist is not identified but an earlier portrait of the queen is by the same hand.
This oil on panel 92 x 72 cm was sold for £ 3.44M from a lower estimate of £ 600K by Sotheby's on July 5, 2023, lot 6.
The fifth consort Catherine Howard was beheaded in 1542. Widowed for the second time in February 1543, Katherine was part of the household of Princess Mary, the daughter of Henry and the late and divorced Catherine of Aragon.
The ailing King Henry married Katherine in July 1543. A political and intellectual powerful figure in her own right and a religious and educational patron close to Protestantism, the new Queen was instrumental of reconciling Henry with his three children who will later reign in their turn, Edward, Mary and Elizabeth.
Henry died in January 1547. Katherine withdraw from the court, made her fourth wedding and died in her first childbirth in 1548.
A portrait in three quarter length of Katherine was probably painted in 1547 while she was the queen dowager, before the secrecy of her fourth marriage was broken. The lavishly dressed queen is identified by a crown topped brooch on her chest which is well described in the inventories of the jewels of Queens Catherine Howard and Katherine Parr. The artist is not identified but an earlier portrait of the queen is by the same hand.
This oil on panel 92 x 72 cm was sold for £ 3.44M from a lower estimate of £ 600K by Sotheby's on July 5, 2023, lot 6.
#AuctionUpdate Attributed to Master John, this portrait of Queen Katherine Parr is one of only two surviving near contemporary paintings of Katherine. Almost 200 years since it was last offered at auction, the work soars to £3,436,000, 4x its high estimate. #SothebysOldMasters pic.twitter.com/EVAnPE9DpY
— Sotheby's (@Sothebys) July 5, 2023
mid 1560s Portrait of Queen Elizabeth I
2007 SOLD for £ 2.6M by Sotheby's
Elizabeth I, Queen of England and Ireland from 1558, let know in 1563 in a draft proclamation that the images made from her like in black with hood and cornet did not any more match her style at 30 years old.
A full length life size portrait where the standing queen is wearing a gown in scarlet satin and white silk displays the desired elegance and luxury also increased by pearls, gems and embroidery. A side panel displays a profusion of ripe fruit in line with the young maturity of the queen while the rest of the background is painted in gold. In her hands the glove is a symbol of power and the carnation flower is the symbol of an expected betrothal.
It was painted in the mid 1560s, in the follow of the draft proclamation, for the use of Hampden House, possibly with a suitor in mind. Once convincingly attributed to Steven van der Meulen in the follow of a similar full length portrait made in 1561, it was recently re-attributed to George Gower although the earliest documented works by this artist were made in 1573.
This oil on panel transferred to canvas 196 x 140 cm was sold for £ 2.6M from a lower estimate of £ 700K by Sotheby's on November 22, 2007, lot 4. The image is shared by Wikimedia,
A full length life size portrait where the standing queen is wearing a gown in scarlet satin and white silk displays the desired elegance and luxury also increased by pearls, gems and embroidery. A side panel displays a profusion of ripe fruit in line with the young maturity of the queen while the rest of the background is painted in gold. In her hands the glove is a symbol of power and the carnation flower is the symbol of an expected betrothal.
It was painted in the mid 1560s, in the follow of the draft proclamation, for the use of Hampden House, possibly with a suitor in mind. Once convincingly attributed to Steven van der Meulen in the follow of a similar full length portrait made in 1561, it was recently re-attributed to George Gower although the earliest documented works by this artist were made in 1573.
This oil on panel transferred to canvas 196 x 140 cm was sold for £ 2.6M from a lower estimate of £ 700K by Sotheby's on November 22, 2007, lot 4. The image is shared by Wikimedia,
1623 SHAKESPEARE's First Folio
Intro
Shakespeare : Meaning, inspiration and Influence of his work on the advancement of Literature, Drama and overall on Civilization and Culture. Psychological evaluation. How did he promote his own work ? Detail the posthumous project and edition of his First Folio by outstanding followers.
William Shakespeare: An Overview
William Shakespeare (1564–1616), often hailed as the Bard of Avon, was an English playwright, poet, and actor whose works have profoundly shaped human expression and thought. His canon includes 39 plays, 154 sonnets, and two long narrative poems, produced during the Elizabethan and Jacobean eras. Shakespeare's inspiration drew from classical sources like Greek and Roman drama, contemporary events, folklore, and the human condition itself, blending tragedy, comedy, history, and romance to explore universal themes such as love, power, ambition, jealousy, and mortality.
Meaning and Inspiration in Shakespeare's Works
The core meaning of Shakespeare's oeuvre lies in its deep humanism: a Renaissance synthesis of Christianity, classicism, and inquiry into the self. He portrayed characters as complex beings driven by internal conflicts, societal pressures, and fate, emphasizing that human nature is neither wholly good nor evil but a blend subjected to scrutiny. His inspiration stemmed from diverse sources, including ancient texts (e.g., Ovid for Venus and Adonis, Plutarch for Julius Caesar), English history chronicles like Holinshed's, and the vibrant London theater scene. Shakespeare fused native English folk traditions with classical structures, innovating plot, language, and characterization to create timeless narratives. For instance, his tragedies often draw from Senecan revenge plays but infuse them with psychological depth, while comedies borrow from Italian commedia dell'arte yet add witty wordplay and social commentary.
Influence on Literature, Drama, Civilization, and Culture
Shakespeare's impact on literature is immeasurable; he coined or popularized around 1,700 words (e.g., "assassination," "bedazzled," "swagger") and phrases like "star-crossed lovers" that permeate modern English. He pioneered tropes such as tragic flaws, soliloquies for inner monologue, and genre-blending, influencing writers from Dickens to Faulkner and Stoppard. In drama, he elevated theater from elite entertainment to a populist art form, building the Globe Theatre and performing for diverse audiences, which democratized storytelling and inspired global stage traditions.
On civilization and culture, Shakespeare embodies Western values—adherence to tradition mixed with critical inquiry—while transcending them, with his works studied and performed in non-Western contexts like China and India. His plays have shaped moral and spiritual visions, influencing politics (e.g., leadership in Henry V), psychology, law, and popular culture, from films (The Lion King as Hamlet) to music and advertising. His brand persists in empire-building, education, and commerce, making him a cultural export that outlasted British colonialism. Globally, he remains the most performed playwright, fostering empathy and debate on human experiences.
Psychological Evaluation of Shakespeare's Works
Shakespeare's plays serve as early psychological case studies, revealing characters' hidden thoughts, emotions, and motivations through dialogue and soliloquies. Researchers have identified a unique "psychological signature" in his writing, marked by categorical thinking (analytic, formal) and thematic depth in emotions, family, and perception. Freud famously analyzed Hamlet as exhibiting an Oedipus complex—unresolved maternal attachment leading to paralysis—while Othello depicts jealousy escalating to rage, and Macbeth explores obsessive-compulsive guilt and ambition's toll. Characters like Richard III embody psychopathy, driven by hatred and trauma, analyzed through Freudian and Lacanian lenses for unconscious desires and inner conflicts. Soliloquies expose the psyche's gaps and silences, showing how intuition overrides reason, prefiguring modern psychology's dual-process theory. Plays like King Lear depict mental illness (e.g., madness from grief), offering insights into depression, post-traumatic stress, and human resilience. Overall, Shakespeare's intuitive grasp of the mind—nature vs. nurture, conscious vs. unconscious—has informed psychoanalysis and continues to expand understandings of mental health.
How Shakespeare Promoted His Own Work
Shakespeare promoted his work through performance and patronage rather than modern marketing. In 1594, he joined the Lord Chamberlain's Men (later King's Men), a prominent acting troupe that performed at court and built the Globe Theatre in 1599, drawing diverse crowds and ensuring wide exposure. His narrative poems, like Venus and Adonis (1593), became overnight best-sellers, reprinted multiple times and alluded to widely for their erotic appeal. Plays were not published by him personally—he focused on scripts for the stage—but some appeared in quarto editions during his life, boosting fame (e.g., Henry IV, Part 1 went through multiple printings). He cultivated relationships with patrons like the Earl of Southampton, dedicating works to them for financial support and prestige. By 1599, anecdotes circulated about him, and his talent drew crowds, making him a celebrity in London's theater scene. Word-of-mouth and repeat performances amplified his reach, with plays like Hamlet gaining rapid popularity through public acclaim.
The Posthumous Project: The First Folio and Its Editors
Seven years after Shakespeare's death in 1616, his colleagues compiled and published Mr. William Shakespeares Comedies, Histories, & Tragedies—known as the First Folio—in 1623, preserving 36 plays, 18 of which (including Macbeth, The Tempest, and Twelfth Night) appeared in print for the first time, saving them from potential loss. This groundbreaking anthology, the first of its kind for dramatic works, was a tribute orchestrated by outstanding followers: actors John Heminges and Henry Condell, who edited and compiled from scripts, drafts, and promptbooks. Printed in folio format by William and Isaac Jaggard (with Edward Blount as a key bookseller), it included commendatory verses by Ben Jonson and others, dedicating it to the Earls of Pembroke and Montgomery.
Around 750 copies were produced between February 1622 and November 1623, entered in the Stationers' Register on November 8, 1623. Heminges and Condell urged readers to spread the word, framing it as a memorial to Shakespeare's "living art." The project reflected political undercurrents, like pro-Spanish alliances via contributors' ties, and solidified his legacy amid the "deafening silence" following his death—no immediate eulogies emerged until this volume. Today, about 233 copies survive, underscoring its enduring cultural value.
William Shakespeare: An Overview
William Shakespeare (1564–1616), often hailed as the Bard of Avon, was an English playwright, poet, and actor whose works have profoundly shaped human expression and thought. His canon includes 39 plays, 154 sonnets, and two long narrative poems, produced during the Elizabethan and Jacobean eras. Shakespeare's inspiration drew from classical sources like Greek and Roman drama, contemporary events, folklore, and the human condition itself, blending tragedy, comedy, history, and romance to explore universal themes such as love, power, ambition, jealousy, and mortality.
Meaning and Inspiration in Shakespeare's Works
The core meaning of Shakespeare's oeuvre lies in its deep humanism: a Renaissance synthesis of Christianity, classicism, and inquiry into the self. He portrayed characters as complex beings driven by internal conflicts, societal pressures, and fate, emphasizing that human nature is neither wholly good nor evil but a blend subjected to scrutiny. His inspiration stemmed from diverse sources, including ancient texts (e.g., Ovid for Venus and Adonis, Plutarch for Julius Caesar), English history chronicles like Holinshed's, and the vibrant London theater scene. Shakespeare fused native English folk traditions with classical structures, innovating plot, language, and characterization to create timeless narratives. For instance, his tragedies often draw from Senecan revenge plays but infuse them with psychological depth, while comedies borrow from Italian commedia dell'arte yet add witty wordplay and social commentary.
Influence on Literature, Drama, Civilization, and Culture
Shakespeare's impact on literature is immeasurable; he coined or popularized around 1,700 words (e.g., "assassination," "bedazzled," "swagger") and phrases like "star-crossed lovers" that permeate modern English. He pioneered tropes such as tragic flaws, soliloquies for inner monologue, and genre-blending, influencing writers from Dickens to Faulkner and Stoppard. In drama, he elevated theater from elite entertainment to a populist art form, building the Globe Theatre and performing for diverse audiences, which democratized storytelling and inspired global stage traditions.
On civilization and culture, Shakespeare embodies Western values—adherence to tradition mixed with critical inquiry—while transcending them, with his works studied and performed in non-Western contexts like China and India. His plays have shaped moral and spiritual visions, influencing politics (e.g., leadership in Henry V), psychology, law, and popular culture, from films (The Lion King as Hamlet) to music and advertising. His brand persists in empire-building, education, and commerce, making him a cultural export that outlasted British colonialism. Globally, he remains the most performed playwright, fostering empathy and debate on human experiences.
Psychological Evaluation of Shakespeare's Works
Shakespeare's plays serve as early psychological case studies, revealing characters' hidden thoughts, emotions, and motivations through dialogue and soliloquies. Researchers have identified a unique "psychological signature" in his writing, marked by categorical thinking (analytic, formal) and thematic depth in emotions, family, and perception. Freud famously analyzed Hamlet as exhibiting an Oedipus complex—unresolved maternal attachment leading to paralysis—while Othello depicts jealousy escalating to rage, and Macbeth explores obsessive-compulsive guilt and ambition's toll. Characters like Richard III embody psychopathy, driven by hatred and trauma, analyzed through Freudian and Lacanian lenses for unconscious desires and inner conflicts. Soliloquies expose the psyche's gaps and silences, showing how intuition overrides reason, prefiguring modern psychology's dual-process theory. Plays like King Lear depict mental illness (e.g., madness from grief), offering insights into depression, post-traumatic stress, and human resilience. Overall, Shakespeare's intuitive grasp of the mind—nature vs. nurture, conscious vs. unconscious—has informed psychoanalysis and continues to expand understandings of mental health.
How Shakespeare Promoted His Own Work
Shakespeare promoted his work through performance and patronage rather than modern marketing. In 1594, he joined the Lord Chamberlain's Men (later King's Men), a prominent acting troupe that performed at court and built the Globe Theatre in 1599, drawing diverse crowds and ensuring wide exposure. His narrative poems, like Venus and Adonis (1593), became overnight best-sellers, reprinted multiple times and alluded to widely for their erotic appeal. Plays were not published by him personally—he focused on scripts for the stage—but some appeared in quarto editions during his life, boosting fame (e.g., Henry IV, Part 1 went through multiple printings). He cultivated relationships with patrons like the Earl of Southampton, dedicating works to them for financial support and prestige. By 1599, anecdotes circulated about him, and his talent drew crowds, making him a celebrity in London's theater scene. Word-of-mouth and repeat performances amplified his reach, with plays like Hamlet gaining rapid popularity through public acclaim.
The Posthumous Project: The First Folio and Its Editors
Seven years after Shakespeare's death in 1616, his colleagues compiled and published Mr. William Shakespeares Comedies, Histories, & Tragedies—known as the First Folio—in 1623, preserving 36 plays, 18 of which (including Macbeth, The Tempest, and Twelfth Night) appeared in print for the first time, saving them from potential loss. This groundbreaking anthology, the first of its kind for dramatic works, was a tribute orchestrated by outstanding followers: actors John Heminges and Henry Condell, who edited and compiled from scripts, drafts, and promptbooks. Printed in folio format by William and Isaac Jaggard (with Edward Blount as a key bookseller), it included commendatory verses by Ben Jonson and others, dedicating it to the Earls of Pembroke and Montgomery.
Around 750 copies were produced between February 1622 and November 1623, entered in the Stationers' Register on November 8, 1623. Heminges and Condell urged readers to spread the word, framing it as a memorial to Shakespeare's "living art." The project reflected political undercurrents, like pro-Spanish alliances via contributors' ties, and solidified his legacy amid the "deafening silence" following his death—no immediate eulogies emerged until this volume. Today, about 233 copies survive, underscoring its enduring cultural value.
1
2020 SOLD for $ 10M by Christie's
The Globe Theatre is created in 1599. It is managed by the actors of the Lord Chamberlain's Men company in the form of a share capital. William Shakespeare has little stake in this business but he is the principal author of the plays which are performed there.
This man of the stage died in 1616 without having paid attention to the literary value of his own works. Half of his plays were unpublished. The others had been issued as poor quality booklets of which we can be assume that they were not verified by the author.
John Heminges and Henry Condell, who owned overall half of the shares of the Globe Theatre, judiciously decided to reconstruct with the best possible accuracy the whole of Shakespeare's dramatic work. They knew 36 plays of which 18 had never been published. They will have to buy back the publishing rights to some of them and to retrieve the partial manuscripts that had been entrusted to the actors to perform their own role.
The print is of the top luxury, in relation to the literary magnificence of the work. What would later be called the First Folio is a superb volume of 454 leaves 32 x 21 cm, printed in 1623 by Jaggard and Blount. It is forever used as the top reference for any Shakespearean scholarship.
The production run of the First Folio is estimated at around 750 copies. About 220 survive today. 56 are complete, of which only 5 are in private hands. All but six are from the third issue when the content was frozen and the error of a redundant page has been corrected.
Shakespeare is the greatest success in English literature and editions are multiplying. Garrick puts Shakespeare still higher in fashion and Edmond Malone devotes his life to the study of his work. Malone proposes in 1778 a chronology of the plays, observes the literary greatness of the First Folio and has a new edition published in 1790.
On October 14, 2020, Christie's sold a complete copy of the First Folio for $ 10M from a lower estimate of $ 4M, lot 12. In 1809 its owner had submitted it to Malone's appreciation just before having it bound. The expert's autograph letter is joined to the volume. Malone found it to be a fine, genuine copy of the First Folio. A few small repairs will be carried out according to his recommendations. This copy has retained the cleanliness observed by Malone more than 200 years ago.
This man of the stage died in 1616 without having paid attention to the literary value of his own works. Half of his plays were unpublished. The others had been issued as poor quality booklets of which we can be assume that they were not verified by the author.
John Heminges and Henry Condell, who owned overall half of the shares of the Globe Theatre, judiciously decided to reconstruct with the best possible accuracy the whole of Shakespeare's dramatic work. They knew 36 plays of which 18 had never been published. They will have to buy back the publishing rights to some of them and to retrieve the partial manuscripts that had been entrusted to the actors to perform their own role.
The print is of the top luxury, in relation to the literary magnificence of the work. What would later be called the First Folio is a superb volume of 454 leaves 32 x 21 cm, printed in 1623 by Jaggard and Blount. It is forever used as the top reference for any Shakespearean scholarship.
The production run of the First Folio is estimated at around 750 copies. About 220 survive today. 56 are complete, of which only 5 are in private hands. All but six are from the third issue when the content was frozen and the error of a redundant page has been corrected.
Shakespeare is the greatest success in English literature and editions are multiplying. Garrick puts Shakespeare still higher in fashion and Edmond Malone devotes his life to the study of his work. Malone proposes in 1778 a chronology of the plays, observes the literary greatness of the First Folio and has a new edition published in 1790.
On October 14, 2020, Christie's sold a complete copy of the First Folio for $ 10M from a lower estimate of $ 4M, lot 12. In 1809 its owner had submitted it to Malone's appreciation just before having it bound. The expert's autograph letter is joined to the volume. Malone found it to be a fine, genuine copy of the First Folio. A few small repairs will be carried out according to his recommendations. This copy has retained the cleanliness observed by Malone more than 200 years ago.
Only five complete copies of the 'First Folio' remain in private hands, and on 24 April in #NewYork, Christie’s will offer the first complete copy to come on the market in almost two decades during our #ExceptionalSale. https://t.co/orNUeX30H0 pic.twitter.com/k90SszIXD0
— Christie's (@ChristiesInc) February 25, 2020
2
2001 SOLD for $ 6.2M by Christie's
On October 8, 2001, Christie's sold a copy of the First Folio for $ 6.2M, lot 100. It is complete and is considered one of the two finest copies in private hands.
Happy birthday #WilliamShakespeare! Here's the #FirstFolio we sold in 2001: http://t.co/5AT12N7jFV #otd #rarebooks pic.twitter.com/jNbnSAuScH
— Christie's Books (@ChristiesBKS) April 23, 2015
3
2006 SOLD for £ 2.8M by Sotheby's
On July 13, 2006, Sotheby's sold for £ 2.8M a complete copy in a mid-17th century binding. lot 95.
The image of the title page is shared by Wikimedia.
The image of the title page is shared by Wikimedia.
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#OnThisDay in 2006, Sotheby's sold Shakespeare’s First Folio in NYC for $5.2m. Having only previously been owned by two people, the First Folio is the first collected edition of plays, without which there may never have been a William Shakespeare. https://t.co/IMGeqgcaoI. pic.twitter.com/C89bgVNPHJ
— Sotheby's (@Sothebys) July 13, 2021
1687 Principia by Newton
2016 SOLD for $ 3.7M by Christie's
Isaac Newton was the most brilliant scientific innovator of all time. Late in his life he laid down the rules that had guided his unprecedented method. One of these rules summarizes in a simple sentence how he created the modern physics : to the same natural effects we must, as far as possible, assign the same causes.
One of his outstanding skills was to develop mathematical methods of high complexity to analyze and support his own physical theories. Even before he was 30, he compared the motion of the planets and the fall of the bodies. Essentially preoccupied with his own understanding of the mechanism of the universe, he published sparingly.
In 1684 in London, the scientists of the Royal Society challenged themselves to find the mathematical formulation of the law of motion of the planets described by Kepler. All failed. Halley visits Newton in Cambridge. He is stunned : Newton knows the solution but has lost his calculation notes. The orbital movement of a celestial body is an ellipse whose position of the other body is one of the foci.
The scientific stake is highly important and Halley manages to persuade Newton to disclose in their entirety his results concerning the law of universal gravitation. Edited and financed by Halley, Newton's Latin book entitled Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica is published in 1687 with the imprimatur of the Royal Society.
The book is difficult in the opinion of the author himself and the circulation probably did not exceed 300 copies but it is of such scientific importance that Halley and Newton took care of organizing their sale through booksellers. One of them named Samuel Smith is more specifically entrusted to the supply onto the Continent and receives about 50 copies for that purpose.
On December 14, 2016, Christie's sold one of the Smith 'Continental' presentation copies of the Principia for $ 3.7M from a lower estimate of $ 1M, lot 167. It is bound in its original unrestored morocco with gold and red inlays. The recipient is not identified.
Another association copy with a binding of a comparable luxury is known. It was offered to King James II, patron of the Royal Society. This book was sold for $ 2.5M by Christie's on December 6, 2013.
One of his outstanding skills was to develop mathematical methods of high complexity to analyze and support his own physical theories. Even before he was 30, he compared the motion of the planets and the fall of the bodies. Essentially preoccupied with his own understanding of the mechanism of the universe, he published sparingly.
In 1684 in London, the scientists of the Royal Society challenged themselves to find the mathematical formulation of the law of motion of the planets described by Kepler. All failed. Halley visits Newton in Cambridge. He is stunned : Newton knows the solution but has lost his calculation notes. The orbital movement of a celestial body is an ellipse whose position of the other body is one of the foci.
The scientific stake is highly important and Halley manages to persuade Newton to disclose in their entirety his results concerning the law of universal gravitation. Edited and financed by Halley, Newton's Latin book entitled Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica is published in 1687 with the imprimatur of the Royal Society.
The book is difficult in the opinion of the author himself and the circulation probably did not exceed 300 copies but it is of such scientific importance that Halley and Newton took care of organizing their sale through booksellers. One of them named Samuel Smith is more specifically entrusted to the supply onto the Continent and receives about 50 copies for that purpose.
On December 14, 2016, Christie's sold one of the Smith 'Continental' presentation copies of the Principia for $ 3.7M from a lower estimate of $ 1M, lot 167. It is bound in its original unrestored morocco with gold and red inlays. The recipient is not identified.
Another association copy with a binding of a comparable luxury is known. It was offered to King James II, patron of the Royal Society. This book was sold for $ 2.5M by Christie's on December 6, 2013.
Isaac Newton : Influence on the advancement of Physics, Astronomy and overall on Science and Knowledge. Psychological evaluation.
Isaac Newton's Influence on the Advancement of Physics, Astronomy, and Overall Science and Knowledge
Isaac Newton (1643–1727) stands as one of the most pivotal figures in the history of science, fundamentally reshaping our understanding of the physical world through his groundbreaking work in mathematics, physics, optics, and astronomy. His contributions during the Scientific Revolution laid the foundations for classical mechanics and modern scientific inquiry, influencing fields far beyond his era and enabling advancements in technology, engineering, and cosmology that persist today.
Contributions to Physics
Newton's most renowned work, Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (commonly known as the Principia), published in 1687, introduced his three laws of motion, which became the bedrock of classical physics. These laws are:
In optics, Newton's 1704 book Opticks demonstrated that white light is composed of a spectrum of colors through prism experiments, laying the groundwork for spectral analysis and modern understanding of light as a wave-particle phenomenon. He also invented the reflecting telescope in 1668, which minimized chromatic aberration and advanced observational tools in physics and astronomy.
Contributions to Astronomy
Newton's gravitational theory derived Kepler's laws of planetary motion from first principles, confirming heliocentrism and explaining the precession of equinoxes, lunar orbits, and satellite dynamics. By applying his laws to Jupiter's moons and Earth's Moon, he showed that the same force governing apples falling on Earth holds planets in orbit around the Sun. This unification eradicated doubts about the Solar System's structure and enabled predictions of celestial events, such as Halley's Comet's return. His reflecting telescope design improved astronomical observations, contributing to later discoveries in stellar dynamics and galactic behavior.
Newton's work extended to calculating the speed of sound and the density of air, influencing astrophysics and planetary science. His model of the universe was more elegant and consistent than predecessors, fostering a mechanistic worldview that propelled astronomy forward.
Broader Impact on Science and Knowledge
Newton co-invented infinitesimal calculus (independently of Leibniz), providing tools for solving problems in rates of change, integrals, and differential equations—essential for physics, engineering, and economics. His emphasis on empirical evidence and mathematical rigor refined the scientific method, shifting science from philosophical speculation to quantitative experimentation. This approach catalyzed the Enlightenment, inspiring figures like Voltaire and Kant, and established Newton as the exemplar of modern science.
Overall, Newton's ideas revolutionized knowledge by demonstrating that natural phenomena could be explained through universal laws, influencing everything from space exploration to quantum mechanics. His legacy is often summarized as having contributed more to science than any other individual, ushering in an era where observation and mathematics became the pillars of human understanding.
Psychological Evaluation of Isaac Newton
Posthumous psychological assessments of Newton are inherently speculative, based on historical accounts, letters, and biographical analyses rather than clinical diagnoses. However, evidence from contemporaries and modern analyses points to a complex personality marked by insecurity, introversion, and episodes of mental distress, possibly exacerbated by environmental factors like mercury exposure from his alchemical experiments. Sources vary in their interpretations, with some attributing symptoms to bipolar disorder, depression, or schizophrenia, while others emphasize mercury poisoning or neurotic traits stemming from childhood trauma.
Newton was described as deeply introverted, secretive, and protective of his privacy, often avoiding social interactions and forming few close relationships. He exhibited low self-esteem, egotism, dominance, and paranoia, fearing theft of his ideas or criticism from rivals like Robert Hooke or Leibniz. As a child, he was solitary, preferring inventions over play, and his mother's remarriage and separation from him at age three likely contributed to lifelong insecurity and trust issues.
A major episode occurred in 1692–1693, often called a "nervous breakdown" or "madness," lasting about 18 months. Symptoms included severe insomnia, poor digestion, loss of appetite, memory problems, delusions of persecution (e.g., believing friends like John Locke and Samuel Pepys were conspiring against him), paranoia, and irrational accusations. He experienced violent temper outbursts, apathy, and withdrawal from friendships, including a strained relationship with Nicolas Fatio de Duillier. Explanations differ:
Isaac Newton's Influence on the Advancement of Physics, Astronomy, and Overall Science and Knowledge
Isaac Newton (1643–1727) stands as one of the most pivotal figures in the history of science, fundamentally reshaping our understanding of the physical world through his groundbreaking work in mathematics, physics, optics, and astronomy. His contributions during the Scientific Revolution laid the foundations for classical mechanics and modern scientific inquiry, influencing fields far beyond his era and enabling advancements in technology, engineering, and cosmology that persist today.
Contributions to Physics
Newton's most renowned work, Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (commonly known as the Principia), published in 1687, introduced his three laws of motion, which became the bedrock of classical physics. These laws are:
- Law of Inertia: A body remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by an external force.
- Law of Acceleration: The change in motion is proportional to the force applied (F = ma).
- Law of Action-Reaction: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
In optics, Newton's 1704 book Opticks demonstrated that white light is composed of a spectrum of colors through prism experiments, laying the groundwork for spectral analysis and modern understanding of light as a wave-particle phenomenon. He also invented the reflecting telescope in 1668, which minimized chromatic aberration and advanced observational tools in physics and astronomy.
Contributions to Astronomy
Newton's gravitational theory derived Kepler's laws of planetary motion from first principles, confirming heliocentrism and explaining the precession of equinoxes, lunar orbits, and satellite dynamics. By applying his laws to Jupiter's moons and Earth's Moon, he showed that the same force governing apples falling on Earth holds planets in orbit around the Sun. This unification eradicated doubts about the Solar System's structure and enabled predictions of celestial events, such as Halley's Comet's return. His reflecting telescope design improved astronomical observations, contributing to later discoveries in stellar dynamics and galactic behavior.
Newton's work extended to calculating the speed of sound and the density of air, influencing astrophysics and planetary science. His model of the universe was more elegant and consistent than predecessors, fostering a mechanistic worldview that propelled astronomy forward.
Broader Impact on Science and Knowledge
Newton co-invented infinitesimal calculus (independently of Leibniz), providing tools for solving problems in rates of change, integrals, and differential equations—essential for physics, engineering, and economics. His emphasis on empirical evidence and mathematical rigor refined the scientific method, shifting science from philosophical speculation to quantitative experimentation. This approach catalyzed the Enlightenment, inspiring figures like Voltaire and Kant, and established Newton as the exemplar of modern science.
Overall, Newton's ideas revolutionized knowledge by demonstrating that natural phenomena could be explained through universal laws, influencing everything from space exploration to quantum mechanics. His legacy is often summarized as having contributed more to science than any other individual, ushering in an era where observation and mathematics became the pillars of human understanding.
Psychological Evaluation of Isaac Newton
Posthumous psychological assessments of Newton are inherently speculative, based on historical accounts, letters, and biographical analyses rather than clinical diagnoses. However, evidence from contemporaries and modern analyses points to a complex personality marked by insecurity, introversion, and episodes of mental distress, possibly exacerbated by environmental factors like mercury exposure from his alchemical experiments. Sources vary in their interpretations, with some attributing symptoms to bipolar disorder, depression, or schizophrenia, while others emphasize mercury poisoning or neurotic traits stemming from childhood trauma.
Newton was described as deeply introverted, secretive, and protective of his privacy, often avoiding social interactions and forming few close relationships. He exhibited low self-esteem, egotism, dominance, and paranoia, fearing theft of his ideas or criticism from rivals like Robert Hooke or Leibniz. As a child, he was solitary, preferring inventions over play, and his mother's remarriage and separation from him at age three likely contributed to lifelong insecurity and trust issues.
A major episode occurred in 1692–1693, often called a "nervous breakdown" or "madness," lasting about 18 months. Symptoms included severe insomnia, poor digestion, loss of appetite, memory problems, delusions of persecution (e.g., believing friends like John Locke and Samuel Pepys were conspiring against him), paranoia, and irrational accusations. He experienced violent temper outbursts, apathy, and withdrawal from friendships, including a strained relationship with Nicolas Fatio de Duillier. Explanations differ:
- Mercury Poisoning: Hair analysis from the 1970s showed elevated mercury (up to 40 times normal) and lead levels, consistent with his alchemical pursuits involving toxic substances. Symptoms like tremor, confusion, paranoia, and memory loss align with chronic mercury poisoning (mercurialism), which some argue caused or worsened his 1693 episode rather than inherent mental illness.
- Bipolar Disorder: Newton showed manic phases (intense, sleepless productivity leading to major discoveries in his 20s) alternating with depressive lows, including suicidal thoughts, anxiety, and sadness documented in his notebooks. His high-strung nature and brooding suggest neuroticism, where overthinking fueled both creativity and unhappiness.
- Other Possibilities: Some propose schizophrenia (hallucinations, delusions, paranoia) or autism (social difficulties, obsessive focus), but these are less supported; one analysis rejects Asperger's syndrome in favor of childhood-induced vulnerability. Depression or melancholia is frequently cited, with grandiose elements in his self-perception (e.g., feeling chosen by God).
Newton's deluxe "Principia" far surpasses $1 million @ChristiesBKS today, reaching $3.7 million! https://t.co/V3Bwq6aGsu pic.twitter.com/4xardPPXsM
— Fine Books Magazine (@finebooks) December 14, 2016
1705-1706 Cooler by Rollos
2010 SOLD for £ 2.5M by Sotheby's
The piece is enormous, all in silver : oval, 1.30 m overall in its greatest diameter including the handles in the shape of half lions, 80.8 kg. Manufactured in 1705-1706 in London by Philip Rollos, it is a cooler, where the bottles could be placed within mountains of ice.
This silverware had been created on an initiative by Queen Anne. Seeking to ensure the standing of her ambassadors, she allocated to them a weight of silver with which they could have made an object enabling them to dazzle in society.
The ambassador in Berlin, from the Wentworth family, exceeded his quota and had to share the expenses. In any other country than England, this enormous bucket would risk a thousand times to be melted during the three centuries of its existence.
Still in the family of its first owner, it was sold for £ 2.5M from a lower estimate of £ 1.5M by Sotheby's on July 6, 2010. A photograph in the catalog shows some fifteen bottles of champagne prepared for an immediate use. The catalog names it a "cistern"!
This silverware had been created on an initiative by Queen Anne. Seeking to ensure the standing of her ambassadors, she allocated to them a weight of silver with which they could have made an object enabling them to dazzle in society.
The ambassador in Berlin, from the Wentworth family, exceeded his quota and had to share the expenses. In any other country than England, this enormous bucket would risk a thousand times to be melted during the three centuries of its existence.
Still in the family of its first owner, it was sold for £ 2.5M from a lower estimate of £ 1.5M by Sotheby's on July 6, 2010. A photograph in the catalog shows some fifteen bottles of champagne prepared for an immediate use. The catalog names it a "cistern"!
