Science 1600-1800
Except otherwise stated, all results include the premium.
See also : Astronomy Physics Medicine 17th century books Ancient England
Chronology : 1680-1699
See also : Astronomy Physics Medicine 17th century books Ancient England
Chronology : 1680-1699
1605 Dialogo in puerposito de la Stella Nuova
2025 SOLD for £ 1.13M by Christie's
The stellar system is unchangeable, isn't it ? At the time of Aristotle when no telescope was yet available, no supernova had been observed from the Western world. Supernovae visible to the naked eye are indeed extremely rare, much less than two per century.
The very first supernova event caught in Europe was in 1572. Extensively studied by Tycho Brahe, it was the first ever observation challenging the all powerful Aristotelian dogma of the immutability of the skies, fully supported by the Christian church.
In 1602 a reprint of Tycho Brahe's book was overseen by Kepler then in progress of establishing his first astronomical law. By chance the next supernova appeared two years later, in 1604. Originally visible in daylight, it gradually faded in a period of 18 months.
In a hurry, an Aristotelian philosopher published in Padua under a pseudonym a book interpreting the supernova as a terrestrial phenomenon, because ‘if a single star were added to the heavens, they would cease to revolve'.
Galileo observed an absence of parallax and concluded that the new star was beyond the moon, so discarding no less than the Aristotelian perfection of the cosmos and promoting measurement as the only secure criterion in scientific research. Seconded by one of his students, he published under a pseudonym in 1605 a book in the form of a witty dialogue between two Paduan peasants. The anonymous essay in Paduan dialect is the first book by the scientist then aged 40.
We must be cautious with the Christian church. The second edition published in Verona later in 1605 removed the direct reference to Aristotle and the Copernican allusion to the Earth's rotation.
12 copies, of which 8 are complete, are surviving from the original Paduan edition. The last one that just surfaced in a private collection is the only example in private hands. This in quarto 20 x 14 cm was sold for £ 1.13M from a lower estimate of £ 500K by Christie's on July 9, 2025, lot 87.
A full report was issued by Kepler in 1606 and the new star was from then identified as Kepler's supernova. Galileo developed his telescope in 1609.
Their remarkable technical feat paved the way to the acceptance of the heliocentrism.
The very first supernova event caught in Europe was in 1572. Extensively studied by Tycho Brahe, it was the first ever observation challenging the all powerful Aristotelian dogma of the immutability of the skies, fully supported by the Christian church.
In 1602 a reprint of Tycho Brahe's book was overseen by Kepler then in progress of establishing his first astronomical law. By chance the next supernova appeared two years later, in 1604. Originally visible in daylight, it gradually faded in a period of 18 months.
In a hurry, an Aristotelian philosopher published in Padua under a pseudonym a book interpreting the supernova as a terrestrial phenomenon, because ‘if a single star were added to the heavens, they would cease to revolve'.
Galileo observed an absence of parallax and concluded that the new star was beyond the moon, so discarding no less than the Aristotelian perfection of the cosmos and promoting measurement as the only secure criterion in scientific research. Seconded by one of his students, he published under a pseudonym in 1605 a book in the form of a witty dialogue between two Paduan peasants. The anonymous essay in Paduan dialect is the first book by the scientist then aged 40.
We must be cautious with the Christian church. The second edition published in Verona later in 1605 removed the direct reference to Aristotle and the Copernican allusion to the Earth's rotation.
12 copies, of which 8 are complete, are surviving from the original Paduan edition. The last one that just surfaced in a private collection is the only example in private hands. This in quarto 20 x 14 cm was sold for £ 1.13M from a lower estimate of £ 500K by Christie's on July 9, 2025, lot 87.
A full report was issued by Kepler in 1606 and the new star was from then identified as Kepler's supernova. Galileo developed his telescope in 1609.
Their remarkable technical feat paved the way to the acceptance of the heliocentrism.
1613 Hortus Eystettensis by Besler
2016 SOLD for £ 1.93M by Christie's
The plant is the basic element of the apothecary. Medical universities maintain gardens to analyse their features. Naturalists are then interested in their variety and undertake classifications. The first flower gardens designed for sole pleasure appear around 1600.
The prince-bishop of Eichstätt is passionate about flowers. His garden has eight sections or terraces where plants are grouped according to their origin. He entrusts the maintenance of the garden and the drawings of the plants to a botanist-apothecary based in Nuremberg, Basilius Besler.
Besler prepares 366 plates with an average of three plants per page. They are classified by season and the reader can compare the phases of a plant including bulb, flower and fruit. The Hortus Eystettensis is issued in 300 copies in 1613, in a very large format 54 x 42 cm. The deluxe version is only printed on one side to avoid the shadow of the back, and hand colored. It may be the most expensive book of its time.
A few copies began circulating in Rome in the circle of the Accademia dei Lincei. This academy is one of the earliest scientific societies in the modern sense of that wording. Its goal is to understand nature from an objective observation. In 1611, the Accademia welcomes into its ranks Galileo and also Faber, the director of the papal botanical garden.
It was known that one of the last sets of uncolored plates of the Hortus Eystettensis was purchased for the use of Faber in 1617. We did not know more. It is probably this one that has just surfaced.
On July 13, 2016, Christie's sold that deluxe copy for £ 1.93M from a lower estimate of £ 800K, lot 173. It is complete of Besler's 366 plates, without the additional botanical text. Before it got its binding, this copy was supplemented with fifteen drawings and one print of a rare plant that was the pride of the garden of Cardinal Farnese. This 1619 dated plate is dedicated to Faber. The whole book was colored by a single hand.
Let us comment the considerable interest of the Roman Catholic aristocracy for flowers. The preparation of the Hortus Eystettensis is indeed contemporary to the artistic study of flowers executed throughout the summer of 1606 by Jan Brueghel from the incitement of the Cardinal Archbishop of Milan.
Please watch the video shared by the auction house.
The prince-bishop of Eichstätt is passionate about flowers. His garden has eight sections or terraces where plants are grouped according to their origin. He entrusts the maintenance of the garden and the drawings of the plants to a botanist-apothecary based in Nuremberg, Basilius Besler.
Besler prepares 366 plates with an average of three plants per page. They are classified by season and the reader can compare the phases of a plant including bulb, flower and fruit. The Hortus Eystettensis is issued in 300 copies in 1613, in a very large format 54 x 42 cm. The deluxe version is only printed on one side to avoid the shadow of the back, and hand colored. It may be the most expensive book of its time.
A few copies began circulating in Rome in the circle of the Accademia dei Lincei. This academy is one of the earliest scientific societies in the modern sense of that wording. Its goal is to understand nature from an objective observation. In 1611, the Accademia welcomes into its ranks Galileo and also Faber, the director of the papal botanical garden.
It was known that one of the last sets of uncolored plates of the Hortus Eystettensis was purchased for the use of Faber in 1617. We did not know more. It is probably this one that has just surfaced.
On July 13, 2016, Christie's sold that deluxe copy for £ 1.93M from a lower estimate of £ 800K, lot 173. It is complete of Besler's 366 plates, without the additional botanical text. Before it got its binding, this copy was supplemented with fifteen drawings and one print of a rare plant that was the pride of the garden of Cardinal Farnese. This 1619 dated plate is dedicated to Faber. The whole book was colored by a single hand.
Let us comment the considerable interest of the Roman Catholic aristocracy for flowers. The preparation of the Hortus Eystettensis is indeed contemporary to the artistic study of flowers executed throughout the summer of 1606 by Jan Brueghel from the incitement of the Cardinal Archbishop of Milan.
Please watch the video shared by the auction house.
1628 Exercitatio Anatomica by Harvey
2025 SOLD for £ 1.02M by Christie's
A copy of the Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis by Harvey, edited in 1628 in Frankfurt, was sold for £ 1.02M from a lower estimate of £ 800K by Christie's on December 10, 2025, lot 176.
Asking Grok to define progress in anatomy compared with Vesalius and find previous auction history for this Harvey title.
Progress in Anatomy: Harvey Compared to Vesalius
Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) and William Harvey (1578–1657) represent pivotal figures in the evolution of anatomical science during the Renaissance and early Scientific Revolution, with Vesalius laying the foundational groundwork for empirical observation and Harvey extending it into functional understanding. Vesalius, often called the "father of modern anatomy," revolutionized the field by challenging the unchallenged authority of the ancient physician Galen (c. 129–c. 216 CE), whose anatomical descriptions were based primarily on animal dissections and had dominated medical education for over a millennium. Harvey, building directly on Vesalius's legacy, shifted anatomy from static description to dynamic physiology, particularly through his seminal work Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus (1628), which demonstrated the circulation of blood.
To illustrate the comparative progress, consider the following key dimensions, comparing Vesalius's Contribution (c. 1543, De Humani Corporis Fabrica) and Harvey's Advancement (1628, De Motu Cordis)
Methodology
Vesalius : Emphasized direct human cadaver dissection over Galen's animal-based texts; corrected ~200 Galenic errors (e.g., Galen's claim that the humerus was the longest bone after the femur; Vesalius showed the tibia/fibula displaced it to fourth). Encouraged public dissections and artist-illustrated accuracy.
Harvey : Integrated Vesalian dissection with quantitative experiments (e.g., measuring heart output in animals) and vivisections; used valves discovered by his teacher Girolamo Fabrici (Vesalius's student) to infer systemic flow.
Progress : From qualitative observation to experimental quantification; Vesalius enabled "seeing," Harvey added "testing" for causation.
Scope of Anatomy
Vesalius : Structural/descriptive: Detailed human musculoskeletal, vascular, and organ systems in 7 volumes with groundbreaking woodcut illustrations (e.g., flayed figures in pastoral settings). Proved human-animal differences (e.g., no rete mirabile in human brain).
Harvey : Functional/physiological: Focused on cardiovascular system, proving blood circulates unidirectionally via the heart as a muscular pump, not Galen's ebb-and-flow model. Influenced by Realdo Colombo's pulmonary circuit (1559).
Progress : From morphology (form) to teleology (purpose); Vesalius mapped the body, Harvey explained its mechanics, unifying anatomy with natural philosophy.
Impact on Medicine
Vesalius : Shifted teaching from lecturing on texts to hands-on anatomy; inspired Padua School (where Harvey studied 1599–1602). Reduced reliance on humoral theory indirectly by accurate structures.
Harvey : "Cornerstone of modern physiology" (Garrison-Morton); enabled advances like Richard Lower's lung oxygenation (1669). Challenged bloodletting; faced initial resistance but gained rapid acceptance.
Progress : Vesalius dismantled dogma; Harvey applied it to hypothesize and verify, accelerating the Scientific Revolution (e.g., Descartes's mechanistic physiology).
Challenges Overcome
Vesalius : Legal/religious barriers to dissection; humanist revival of texts but prioritized experientia (experience).
Harvey : Galenic opposition (e.g., from Jean Riolan); lost patients due to "crack-pot" ideas undermining humors.
Progress : Cumulative: Vesalius's empirical foundation made Harvey's causal inferences possible; both emphasized "res publica literaria" (republic of letters) for collaborative progress.
In essence, Vesalius progressed anatomy by establishing it as an observational science independent of ancient authority, providing the precise human blueprint that Harvey used to deduce function. This progression reflects the Renaissance emphasis on historia (description) evolving into 17th-century scientia (causal knowledge), with Harvey explicitly crediting Padua's Vesalian tradition. Without Vesalius, Harvey's circulatory model—arrived at via dissections, measurements, and logical deduction—would lack the anatomical fidelity to convince contemporaries.
Auction History for Exercitatio Anatomica
The first edition of Harvey's De Motu Cordis (Frankfurt: William Fitzer, 1628) is extraordinarily rare, with fewer than 100 surviving copies worldwide, many in institutions. It is the most valuable medical book at auction, with prices driven by its transformative role in physiology. Provenance often includes luminaries like Constantijn Huygens (1630 inscription). Later editions, like the 1639 third, fetch far less; e.g., a 1639 Leiden copy sold for $22,950 at Bonhams in 2019.
First editions routinely estimate at £800,000–£1.2M ($1M–$1.5M), as with the upcoming Christie's lot, due to scarcity and impact. Private sales (e.g., to collectors like the Grolier Club) may exceed public records.
Asking Grok to define progress in anatomy compared with Vesalius and find previous auction history for this Harvey title.
Progress in Anatomy: Harvey Compared to Vesalius
Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) and William Harvey (1578–1657) represent pivotal figures in the evolution of anatomical science during the Renaissance and early Scientific Revolution, with Vesalius laying the foundational groundwork for empirical observation and Harvey extending it into functional understanding. Vesalius, often called the "father of modern anatomy," revolutionized the field by challenging the unchallenged authority of the ancient physician Galen (c. 129–c. 216 CE), whose anatomical descriptions were based primarily on animal dissections and had dominated medical education for over a millennium. Harvey, building directly on Vesalius's legacy, shifted anatomy from static description to dynamic physiology, particularly through his seminal work Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus (1628), which demonstrated the circulation of blood.
To illustrate the comparative progress, consider the following key dimensions, comparing Vesalius's Contribution (c. 1543, De Humani Corporis Fabrica) and Harvey's Advancement (1628, De Motu Cordis)
Methodology
Vesalius : Emphasized direct human cadaver dissection over Galen's animal-based texts; corrected ~200 Galenic errors (e.g., Galen's claim that the humerus was the longest bone after the femur; Vesalius showed the tibia/fibula displaced it to fourth). Encouraged public dissections and artist-illustrated accuracy.
Harvey : Integrated Vesalian dissection with quantitative experiments (e.g., measuring heart output in animals) and vivisections; used valves discovered by his teacher Girolamo Fabrici (Vesalius's student) to infer systemic flow.
Progress : From qualitative observation to experimental quantification; Vesalius enabled "seeing," Harvey added "testing" for causation.
Scope of Anatomy
Vesalius : Structural/descriptive: Detailed human musculoskeletal, vascular, and organ systems in 7 volumes with groundbreaking woodcut illustrations (e.g., flayed figures in pastoral settings). Proved human-animal differences (e.g., no rete mirabile in human brain).
Harvey : Functional/physiological: Focused on cardiovascular system, proving blood circulates unidirectionally via the heart as a muscular pump, not Galen's ebb-and-flow model. Influenced by Realdo Colombo's pulmonary circuit (1559).
Progress : From morphology (form) to teleology (purpose); Vesalius mapped the body, Harvey explained its mechanics, unifying anatomy with natural philosophy.
Impact on Medicine
Vesalius : Shifted teaching from lecturing on texts to hands-on anatomy; inspired Padua School (where Harvey studied 1599–1602). Reduced reliance on humoral theory indirectly by accurate structures.
Harvey : "Cornerstone of modern physiology" (Garrison-Morton); enabled advances like Richard Lower's lung oxygenation (1669). Challenged bloodletting; faced initial resistance but gained rapid acceptance.
Progress : Vesalius dismantled dogma; Harvey applied it to hypothesize and verify, accelerating the Scientific Revolution (e.g., Descartes's mechanistic physiology).
Challenges Overcome
Vesalius : Legal/religious barriers to dissection; humanist revival of texts but prioritized experientia (experience).
Harvey : Galenic opposition (e.g., from Jean Riolan); lost patients due to "crack-pot" ideas undermining humors.
Progress : Cumulative: Vesalius's empirical foundation made Harvey's causal inferences possible; both emphasized "res publica literaria" (republic of letters) for collaborative progress.
In essence, Vesalius progressed anatomy by establishing it as an observational science independent of ancient authority, providing the precise human blueprint that Harvey used to deduce function. This progression reflects the Renaissance emphasis on historia (description) evolving into 17th-century scientia (causal knowledge), with Harvey explicitly crediting Padua's Vesalian tradition. Without Vesalius, Harvey's circulatory model—arrived at via dissections, measurements, and logical deduction—would lack the anatomical fidelity to convince contemporaries.
Auction History for Exercitatio Anatomica
The first edition of Harvey's De Motu Cordis (Frankfurt: William Fitzer, 1628) is extraordinarily rare, with fewer than 100 surviving copies worldwide, many in institutions. It is the most valuable medical book at auction, with prices driven by its transformative role in physiology. Provenance often includes luminaries like Constantijn Huygens (1630 inscription). Later editions, like the 1639 third, fetch far less; e.g., a 1639 Leiden copy sold for $22,950 at Bonhams in 2019.
First editions routinely estimate at £800,000–£1.2M ($1M–$1.5M), as with the upcoming Christie's lot, due to scarcity and impact. Private sales (e.g., to collectors like the Grolier Club) may exceed public records.
1687 Principia by NEWTON
Intro
Isaac Newton : Influence on the advancement of Physics, Astronomy and overall on Science and Knowledge. Psychological evaluation.
Isaac Newton's Influence on the Advancement of Physics, Astronomy, and Overall Science and Knowledge
Isaac Newton (1643–1727) stands as one of the most pivotal figures in the history of science, fundamentally reshaping our understanding of the physical world through his groundbreaking work in mathematics, physics, optics, and astronomy. His contributions during the Scientific Revolution laid the foundations for classical mechanics and modern scientific inquiry, influencing fields far beyond his era and enabling advancements in technology, engineering, and cosmology that persist today.
Contributions to Physics
Newton's most renowned work, Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (commonly known as the Principia), published in 1687, introduced his three laws of motion, which became the bedrock of classical physics. These laws are:
In optics, Newton's 1704 book Opticks demonstrated that white light is composed of a spectrum of colors through prism experiments, laying the groundwork for spectral analysis and modern understanding of light as a wave-particle phenomenon. He also invented the reflecting telescope in 1668, which minimized chromatic aberration and advanced observational tools in physics and astronomy.
Contributions to Astronomy
Newton's gravitational theory derived Kepler's laws of planetary motion from first principles, confirming heliocentrism and explaining the precession of equinoxes, lunar orbits, and satellite dynamics. By applying his laws to Jupiter's moons and Earth's Moon, he showed that the same force governing apples falling on Earth holds planets in orbit around the Sun. This unification eradicated doubts about the Solar System's structure and enabled predictions of celestial events, such as Halley's Comet's return. His reflecting telescope design improved astronomical observations, contributing to later discoveries in stellar dynamics and galactic behavior.
Newton's work extended to calculating the speed of sound and the density of air, influencing astrophysics and planetary science. His model of the universe was more elegant and consistent than predecessors, fostering a mechanistic worldview that propelled astronomy forward.
Broader Impact on Science and Knowledge
Newton co-invented infinitesimal calculus (independently of Leibniz), providing tools for solving problems in rates of change, integrals, and differential equations—essential for physics, engineering, and economics. His emphasis on empirical evidence and mathematical rigor refined the scientific method, shifting science from philosophical speculation to quantitative experimentation. This approach catalyzed the Enlightenment, inspiring figures like Voltaire and Kant, and established Newton as the exemplar of modern science.
Overall, Newton's ideas revolutionized knowledge by demonstrating that natural phenomena could be explained through universal laws, influencing everything from space exploration to quantum mechanics. His legacy is often summarized as having contributed more to science than any other individual, ushering in an era where observation and mathematics became the pillars of human understanding.
Psychological Evaluation of Isaac Newton
Posthumous psychological assessments of Newton are inherently speculative, based on historical accounts, letters, and biographical analyses rather than clinical diagnoses. However, evidence from contemporaries and modern analyses points to a complex personality marked by insecurity, introversion, and episodes of mental distress, possibly exacerbated by environmental factors like mercury exposure from his alchemical experiments. Sources vary in their interpretations, with some attributing symptoms to bipolar disorder, depression, or schizophrenia, while others emphasize mercury poisoning or neurotic traits stemming from childhood trauma.
Newton was described as deeply introverted, secretive, and protective of his privacy, often avoiding social interactions and forming few close relationships. He exhibited low self-esteem, egotism, dominance, and paranoia, fearing theft of his ideas or criticism from rivals like Robert Hooke or Leibniz. As a child, he was solitary, preferring inventions over play, and his mother's remarriage and separation from him at age three likely contributed to lifelong insecurity and trust issues.
A major episode occurred in 1692–1693, often called a "nervous breakdown" or "madness," lasting about 18 months. Symptoms included severe insomnia, poor digestion, loss of appetite, memory problems, delusions of persecution (e.g., believing friends like John Locke and Samuel Pepys were conspiring against him), paranoia, and irrational accusations. He experienced violent temper outbursts, apathy, and withdrawal from friendships, including a strained relationship with Nicolas Fatio de Duillier. Explanations differ:
Isaac Newton's Influence on the Advancement of Physics, Astronomy, and Overall Science and Knowledge
Isaac Newton (1643–1727) stands as one of the most pivotal figures in the history of science, fundamentally reshaping our understanding of the physical world through his groundbreaking work in mathematics, physics, optics, and astronomy. His contributions during the Scientific Revolution laid the foundations for classical mechanics and modern scientific inquiry, influencing fields far beyond his era and enabling advancements in technology, engineering, and cosmology that persist today.
Contributions to Physics
Newton's most renowned work, Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (commonly known as the Principia), published in 1687, introduced his three laws of motion, which became the bedrock of classical physics. These laws are:
- Law of Inertia: A body remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by an external force.
- Law of Acceleration: The change in motion is proportional to the force applied (F = ma).
- Law of Action-Reaction: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
In optics, Newton's 1704 book Opticks demonstrated that white light is composed of a spectrum of colors through prism experiments, laying the groundwork for spectral analysis and modern understanding of light as a wave-particle phenomenon. He also invented the reflecting telescope in 1668, which minimized chromatic aberration and advanced observational tools in physics and astronomy.
Contributions to Astronomy
Newton's gravitational theory derived Kepler's laws of planetary motion from first principles, confirming heliocentrism and explaining the precession of equinoxes, lunar orbits, and satellite dynamics. By applying his laws to Jupiter's moons and Earth's Moon, he showed that the same force governing apples falling on Earth holds planets in orbit around the Sun. This unification eradicated doubts about the Solar System's structure and enabled predictions of celestial events, such as Halley's Comet's return. His reflecting telescope design improved astronomical observations, contributing to later discoveries in stellar dynamics and galactic behavior.
Newton's work extended to calculating the speed of sound and the density of air, influencing astrophysics and planetary science. His model of the universe was more elegant and consistent than predecessors, fostering a mechanistic worldview that propelled astronomy forward.
Broader Impact on Science and Knowledge
Newton co-invented infinitesimal calculus (independently of Leibniz), providing tools for solving problems in rates of change, integrals, and differential equations—essential for physics, engineering, and economics. His emphasis on empirical evidence and mathematical rigor refined the scientific method, shifting science from philosophical speculation to quantitative experimentation. This approach catalyzed the Enlightenment, inspiring figures like Voltaire and Kant, and established Newton as the exemplar of modern science.
Overall, Newton's ideas revolutionized knowledge by demonstrating that natural phenomena could be explained through universal laws, influencing everything from space exploration to quantum mechanics. His legacy is often summarized as having contributed more to science than any other individual, ushering in an era where observation and mathematics became the pillars of human understanding.
Psychological Evaluation of Isaac Newton
Posthumous psychological assessments of Newton are inherently speculative, based on historical accounts, letters, and biographical analyses rather than clinical diagnoses. However, evidence from contemporaries and modern analyses points to a complex personality marked by insecurity, introversion, and episodes of mental distress, possibly exacerbated by environmental factors like mercury exposure from his alchemical experiments. Sources vary in their interpretations, with some attributing symptoms to bipolar disorder, depression, or schizophrenia, while others emphasize mercury poisoning or neurotic traits stemming from childhood trauma.
Newton was described as deeply introverted, secretive, and protective of his privacy, often avoiding social interactions and forming few close relationships. He exhibited low self-esteem, egotism, dominance, and paranoia, fearing theft of his ideas or criticism from rivals like Robert Hooke or Leibniz. As a child, he was solitary, preferring inventions over play, and his mother's remarriage and separation from him at age three likely contributed to lifelong insecurity and trust issues.
A major episode occurred in 1692–1693, often called a "nervous breakdown" or "madness," lasting about 18 months. Symptoms included severe insomnia, poor digestion, loss of appetite, memory problems, delusions of persecution (e.g., believing friends like John Locke and Samuel Pepys were conspiring against him), paranoia, and irrational accusations. He experienced violent temper outbursts, apathy, and withdrawal from friendships, including a strained relationship with Nicolas Fatio de Duillier. Explanations differ:
- Mercury Poisoning: Hair analysis from the 1970s showed elevated mercury (up to 40 times normal) and lead levels, consistent with his alchemical pursuits involving toxic substances. Symptoms like tremor, confusion, paranoia, and memory loss align with chronic mercury poisoning (mercurialism), which some argue caused or worsened his 1693 episode rather than inherent mental illness.
- Bipolar Disorder: Newton showed manic phases (intense, sleepless productivity leading to major discoveries in his 20s) alternating with depressive lows, including suicidal thoughts, anxiety, and sadness documented in his notebooks. His high-strung nature and brooding suggest neuroticism, where overthinking fueled both creativity and unhappiness.
- Other Possibilities: Some propose schizophrenia (hallucinations, delusions, paranoia) or autism (social difficulties, obsessive focus), but these are less supported; one analysis rejects Asperger's syndrome in favor of childhood-induced vulnerability. Depression or melancholia is frequently cited, with grandiose elements in his self-perception (e.g., feeling chosen by God).
1
2016 SOLD for $ 3.7M by Christie's
Isaac Newton was the most brilliant scientific innovator of all time. Late in his life he laid down the rules that had guided his unprecedented method. One of these rules summarizes in a simple sentence how he created the modern physics : to the same natural effects we must, as far as possible, assign the same causes.
One of his outstanding skills was to develop mathematical methods of high complexity to analyze and support his own physical theories. Even before he was 30, he compared the motion of the planets and the fall of the bodies. Essentially preoccupied with his own understanding of the mechanism of the universe, he published reluctantly.
In 1684 in London, the scientists of the Royal Society challenged themselves to find the mathematical formulation of the law of motion of the planets described by Kepler. All failed. Halley visits Newton in Cambridge. He is stunned : Newton knows the solution but has lost his calculation notes. The orbital movement of a celestial body is an ellipse whose position of the other body is one of the foci.
The scientific stake is highly important and Halley manages to persuade Newton to disclose in their entirety his results concerning the law of universal gravitation. Edited and financed by Halley, Newton's Latin book entitled Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica is published in 1687 with the imprimatur of the Royal Society.
The book is difficult in the opinion of the author himself and the circulation probably did not exceed 300 copies but it is of such scientific importance that Halley and Newton took care of organizing their sale through booksellers. One of them named Samuel Smith is more specifically entrusted to the supply onto the Continent and receives about 50 copies for that purpose.
On December 14, 2016, Christie's sold one of the Smith 'Continental' presentation copies of the Principia for $ 3.7M from a lower estimate of $ 1M, lot 167. It is bound in its original unrestored morocco with gold and red inlays. The recipient is not identified.
One of his outstanding skills was to develop mathematical methods of high complexity to analyze and support his own physical theories. Even before he was 30, he compared the motion of the planets and the fall of the bodies. Essentially preoccupied with his own understanding of the mechanism of the universe, he published reluctantly.
In 1684 in London, the scientists of the Royal Society challenged themselves to find the mathematical formulation of the law of motion of the planets described by Kepler. All failed. Halley visits Newton in Cambridge. He is stunned : Newton knows the solution but has lost his calculation notes. The orbital movement of a celestial body is an ellipse whose position of the other body is one of the foci.
The scientific stake is highly important and Halley manages to persuade Newton to disclose in their entirety his results concerning the law of universal gravitation. Edited and financed by Halley, Newton's Latin book entitled Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica is published in 1687 with the imprimatur of the Royal Society.
The book is difficult in the opinion of the author himself and the circulation probably did not exceed 300 copies but it is of such scientific importance that Halley and Newton took care of organizing their sale through booksellers. One of them named Samuel Smith is more specifically entrusted to the supply onto the Continent and receives about 50 copies for that purpose.
On December 14, 2016, Christie's sold one of the Smith 'Continental' presentation copies of the Principia for $ 3.7M from a lower estimate of $ 1M, lot 167. It is bound in its original unrestored morocco with gold and red inlays. The recipient is not identified.
Newton's deluxe "Principia" far surpasses $1 million @ChristiesBKS today, reaching $3.7 million! https://t.co/V3Bwq6aGsu pic.twitter.com/4xardPPXsM
— Fine Books Magazine (@finebooks) December 14, 2016
2
2013 SOLD for $ 2.5M by Christie's
A Royal copy of the Principia in its original morocco luxury binding was sold for $ 2.5M by Christie's on December 6, 2013 from a lower estimate of $ 400K, lot 170.
It had been presented by Halley to King James II, patron of the Royal Society. The Royal bindings from that reign are extremely rare.
It had been presented by Halley to King James II, patron of the Royal Society. The Royal bindings from that reign are extremely rare.
1694 Autograph Notes by Newton and Gregory
2021 SOLD for £ 1.7M by Christie's
The quest for the divine truth is the passion of Isaac Newton. He appreciates that his original edition of the Principia in 1687 still has some unanswered questions. He does not want being disturbed by outsiders. The book is in Latin and not in vernacular so that only great minds will comprehend it. Somebody said : "There goes a man who has written a book neither he nor anyone else can understand".
David Gregory was one of the happy few who were skilled to construct on the Principia. A professor of mathematics at the University of Edinburgh, he was 17 years younger than Newton. He was the first to lecture on the Principia and began communicating with Newton. In 1691 Newton managed to have Gregory elected to the Savilian chair of astronomy at the University of Oxford.
In May 1694 Gregory visited Newton in Cambridge in a six day working session based on the proposed revisions to the Principia. Their combined autograph manuscripts are heavily revised working documents based on the texts under discussion from throughout the Principia.
A scrap of paper 22 x 19 cm escaped for an unknown reason the deposit of Gregory's papers at the Royal Institution in the 1860s. These one and a half pages in Latin include 39 lines in Newton’s hand, alongside 14 lines and two diagrams by Gregory. They deal with three topics : the force acting in the compression of liquids, the orbit of the comets, the build of conic figures on centripetal forces.
This unpublished scientific draft was sold for £ 1.7M from a lower estimate of £ 600K by Christie's on July 8, 2021, lot 22. Please watch the video shared by the auction house. The tweets illustrate both sides of the paper.
David Gregory was one of the happy few who were skilled to construct on the Principia. A professor of mathematics at the University of Edinburgh, he was 17 years younger than Newton. He was the first to lecture on the Principia and began communicating with Newton. In 1691 Newton managed to have Gregory elected to the Savilian chair of astronomy at the University of Oxford.
In May 1694 Gregory visited Newton in Cambridge in a six day working session based on the proposed revisions to the Principia. Their combined autograph manuscripts are heavily revised working documents based on the texts under discussion from throughout the Principia.
A scrap of paper 22 x 19 cm escaped for an unknown reason the deposit of Gregory's papers at the Royal Institution in the 1860s. These one and a half pages in Latin include 39 lines in Newton’s hand, alongside 14 lines and two diagrams by Gregory. They deal with three topics : the force acting in the compression of liquids, the orbit of the comets, the build of conic figures on centripetal forces.
This unpublished scientific draft was sold for £ 1.7M from a lower estimate of £ 600K by Christie's on July 8, 2021, lot 22. Please watch the video shared by the auction house. The tweets illustrate both sides of the paper.
#AuctionUpdate A remarkable scientific manuscript by Sir Isaac Newton sold for £1,702,500, setting a new #WorldAuctionRecord for an #IsaacNewton manuscript. The manuscript contains autograph notes showing one of history's greatest scientific minds at work. □ □ pic.twitter.com/5CPmOmsiIO
— Christie's (@ChristiesInc) July 8, 2021
1704 Opticks by Newton
2015 SOLD for $ 1.33M by Sotheby's
In 1666 Isaac Newton aged 24 is working on improving the optics of the telescopes. His observation that the generation of the spectrum is related to the physical properties of light and not to those of the prism is one of the most important scientific advances of his time. He irrefutably demonstrates it by recomposing the white light though a second prism.
In 1672, he manages to suppress the chromatic aberration in the telescopes and reveals his findings at the Royal Society which publishes his lecture in its Philosophical Transactions.
The great scientist had a difficult temperament and did not accept contradiction. Robert Hooke, who had considered before Newton a wave property of light, is challenging some elements. The hatred between the two physicists is irremediable. Newton refuses to publish his book all along Hooke's lifetime.
Fortunately, Newton also has friends such as Edmund Halley who helps him to publish in 1687 his seminal book on the use of mathematics to model the gravitational properties of matter, the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica.
Opticks is finally printed and released in London in 1704, curiously without the author's name, the year after the death of Hooke. Newton added two discussions on curvilinear figures, in order to establish his priority over an ongoing work by Leibniz.
The copy of Opticks presented by Newton to Halley was sold for $ 1.33M from a lower estimate of $ 400K by Sotheby's on December 4, 2015, lot 918. It is not dedicated but Halley wrote on the inside title page: "Luceo. Ex dono doctissimi authoris". Luceo, which does not mean anything in Latin, is a burst of enthusiasm based on Lux.
In 1672, he manages to suppress the chromatic aberration in the telescopes and reveals his findings at the Royal Society which publishes his lecture in its Philosophical Transactions.
The great scientist had a difficult temperament and did not accept contradiction. Robert Hooke, who had considered before Newton a wave property of light, is challenging some elements. The hatred between the two physicists is irremediable. Newton refuses to publish his book all along Hooke's lifetime.
Fortunately, Newton also has friends such as Edmund Halley who helps him to publish in 1687 his seminal book on the use of mathematics to model the gravitational properties of matter, the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica.
Opticks is finally printed and released in London in 1704, curiously without the author's name, the year after the death of Hooke. Newton added two discussions on curvilinear figures, in order to establish his priority over an ongoing work by Leibniz.
The copy of Opticks presented by Newton to Halley was sold for $ 1.33M from a lower estimate of $ 400K by Sotheby's on December 4, 2015, lot 918. It is not dedicated but Halley wrote on the inside title page: "Luceo. Ex dono doctissimi authoris". Luceo, which does not mean anything in Latin, is a burst of enthusiasm based on Lux.
On our last day of book sales from the Pirie Collection, Newton’s Opticks sold for $1.3m, more than 2x the estimate pic.twitter.com/YPeX07ZcJy
— Sotheby's (@Sothebys) December 4, 2015
1750 Cabinet de Curiosités de la Couronne
1
Microscope of the Duc de Chaulnes
1999 SOLD for £ 1M by Christie's
In 1750 the Cabinet de Curiosités de la Couronne is installed in a pavilion in the garden of La Muette, near Passy, where the castle has just been rebuilt on request from King Louis XV. It is specially focusing on optics.
Some scientific instruments are commissioned to the clockmaker Claude-Siméon Passemant, also author in 1754 of an astronomical clock which set the official time of the kingdom.
The duc de Chaulnes is altogether astronomer, physicist and engineer. One of his most spectacular contributions to knowledge is the simulation of lightning.
He also had the idea of combining the microscope and the micrometer, invented separately before him. This invention was fruitful because it immediately enabled to measure the small objects admired by Van Leeuwenhoek.
A small series of microscopes from the design of the duc de Chaulnes was made circa 1750. Some copies have survived.
The optical microscope and the mechanism are attributed to Passemant. The micrometer was made by André Maingaut. The scientific quality was at that time not inconsistent with luxury: its gilt bronzes may be attributed to Caffieri.
Some instruments have their tube wrapped in fishskin. One of them was sold for £ 1M by Christie's on July 8, 1999, lot 184.
A microscope of the duc de Chaulnes with a shagreen wrapped tube was sold for € 900K by Sotheby's on October 22, 2008, lot 65. Another one with no shagreen was sold for € 620K by Piasa on June 19, 2013.
Some scientific instruments are commissioned to the clockmaker Claude-Siméon Passemant, also author in 1754 of an astronomical clock which set the official time of the kingdom.
The duc de Chaulnes is altogether astronomer, physicist and engineer. One of his most spectacular contributions to knowledge is the simulation of lightning.
He also had the idea of combining the microscope and the micrometer, invented separately before him. This invention was fruitful because it immediately enabled to measure the small objects admired by Van Leeuwenhoek.
A small series of microscopes from the design of the duc de Chaulnes was made circa 1750. Some copies have survived.
The optical microscope and the mechanism are attributed to Passemant. The micrometer was made by André Maingaut. The scientific quality was at that time not inconsistent with luxury: its gilt bronzes may be attributed to Caffieri.
Some instruments have their tube wrapped in fishskin. One of them was sold for £ 1M by Christie's on July 8, 1999, lot 184.
A microscope of the duc de Chaulnes with a shagreen wrapped tube was sold for € 900K by Sotheby's on October 22, 2008, lot 65. Another one with no shagreen was sold for € 620K by Piasa on June 19, 2013.
2
Culpeper Microscope
2021 SOLD for € 1.02M by Christie's
A microscope attributed to Passemant was sold for € 1.02M from a lower estimate of € 300K by Christie's on November 23, 2021, lot 208. This instrument 55 cm high is made of gilt bronze, steel, mahogany and shagreen. The bronzes are attributed to Caffieri.
It is a highly rare deluxe French example of a microscope in the Culpeper tripod type, developed in England ca 1725.
It is a highly rare deluxe French example of a microscope in the Culpeper tripod type, developed in England ca 1725.
1776 The Wealth of Nations by Smith
2018 SOLD for £ 910K by Christie's
Adam Smith taught logic and moral philosophy until 1764 at the University of Glasgow. He builds his own political theories from a postulate of continuous growth of nations, now in the phase of trade after hunting, breeding and agriculture. He anticipates the British industrial revolution.
In relation with Hume, Voltaire, Franklin, and inspired by Newton's scientific method, Smith considers a logic based on the economic recognition of the labor force that would limit the power of the governments. The centralized state and its laws remain necessary to oppose abuses from the individuals.
For proposing a system of natural laws, he relies on Quesnay's theories of agricultural wealth. The application to justice enriches his vision of a free trade that is both moral and pragmatic and would further minimize the intervention of the governments.
His seminal book of political economy was published in London in 1776 under the title An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. The author owned two copies of the first issue. One of them is not currently located. The other copy was sold for £ 910K from a lower estimate of £ 500K by Christie's on December 12, 2018, lot 220.
In relation with Hume, Voltaire, Franklin, and inspired by Newton's scientific method, Smith considers a logic based on the economic recognition of the labor force that would limit the power of the governments. The centralized state and its laws remain necessary to oppose abuses from the individuals.
For proposing a system of natural laws, he relies on Quesnay's theories of agricultural wealth. The application to justice enriches his vision of a free trade that is both moral and pragmatic and would further minimize the intervention of the governments.
His seminal book of political economy was published in London in 1776 under the title An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. The author owned two copies of the first issue. One of them is not currently located. The other copy was sold for £ 910K from a lower estimate of £ 500K by Christie's on December 12, 2018, lot 220.
Wealth of Nations first edition owned by Adam Smith himself comes to auction @ChristiesInc https://t.co/0LbthNSDRx pic.twitter.com/KDfYjDPy16
— AntiquesTradeGazette (@ATG_Editorial) November 28, 2018
