Chinese Instrument
Except otherwise stated, all results include the premium.
See also : Musical instrument Song
Chronology : 1-1000 1710-1719
See also : Musical instrument Song
Chronology : 1-1000 1710-1719
guqin
Intro
The qin is the traditional Chinese plucked string instrument. The antique variants are now designated as guqin.
The guqin is the first of the four treasures of the scholar, ahead of Chinese go, calligraphy and ink painting. It was known since ancient times and the Chinese tradition likes to assign it with a pre-dynastic origin. Confucius is quoted among the sages who improved the instrument.
The classical seven-string guqin provides a music of great subtlety facilitated by the dots of harmony distributed on the surface. The wooden back is also an invitation to the inscription of poems.
The nine virtues (九德, jiǔ dé) of the guqin refer to a traditional set of aesthetic and sonic ideals that define the highest quality of sound produced by an excellent antique (or ideally crafted) guqin. These qualities have been discussed in Chinese guqin literature since at least the Song Dynasty (with roots possibly earlier), and they are prominently referenced in Ming-era texts such as Gao Lian's Zunsheng Bajian (遵生八牋, "Eight Discourses on Living") and related compendia like Taiyin Daquanji.
Ancient connoisseurs believed that only the finest guqin could embody all nine virtues simultaneously, creating a perfect, deeply pleasing auditory experience that evokes tranquility, depth, and spiritual resonance. Instruments possessing all nine are exceedingly rare and are considered supreme masterpieces (至品). A famous example is the Tang Dynasty Da Sheng Yi Yin guqin, which is repeatedly praised in historical and modern sources for fully embodying these nine virtues.
Here are the nine virtues, with their standard Chinese terms and common English translations/explanations (translations can vary slightly depending on the source, as they describe nuanced sonic and aesthetic qualities):
The guqin is the first of the four treasures of the scholar, ahead of Chinese go, calligraphy and ink painting. It was known since ancient times and the Chinese tradition likes to assign it with a pre-dynastic origin. Confucius is quoted among the sages who improved the instrument.
The classical seven-string guqin provides a music of great subtlety facilitated by the dots of harmony distributed on the surface. The wooden back is also an invitation to the inscription of poems.
The nine virtues (九德, jiǔ dé) of the guqin refer to a traditional set of aesthetic and sonic ideals that define the highest quality of sound produced by an excellent antique (or ideally crafted) guqin. These qualities have been discussed in Chinese guqin literature since at least the Song Dynasty (with roots possibly earlier), and they are prominently referenced in Ming-era texts such as Gao Lian's Zunsheng Bajian (遵生八牋, "Eight Discourses on Living") and related compendia like Taiyin Daquanji.
Ancient connoisseurs believed that only the finest guqin could embody all nine virtues simultaneously, creating a perfect, deeply pleasing auditory experience that evokes tranquility, depth, and spiritual resonance. Instruments possessing all nine are exceedingly rare and are considered supreme masterpieces (至品). A famous example is the Tang Dynasty Da Sheng Yi Yin guqin, which is repeatedly praised in historical and modern sources for fully embodying these nine virtues.
Here are the nine virtues, with their standard Chinese terms and common English translations/explanations (translations can vary slightly depending on the source, as they describe nuanced sonic and aesthetic qualities):
- 奇 (Qí) — Remarkable, strange, wonderful, or extraordinary
The sound has an unusual, captivating, or "otherworldly" quality that stands out immediately—something fresh, surprising, and not ordinary. It often implies a sense of uniqueness or magic that draws the listener in. - 古 (Gǔ) — Ancient
The timbre evokes a sense of great antiquity, depth, and timelessness, as if carrying the echo of ancient sages or distant eras. This is tied to the natural aging of the wood and lacquer over centuries, giving a mature, weathered richness. - 透 (Tòu) — Penetrating or clear-through
The sound is clear, resonant, and carries far—able to "penetrate" space with clarity and projection, without muddiness. It travels well and remains distinct even at a distance. - 润 (Rùn) — Moist, rich, mellow, or smooth/lustrous
The tone is warm, rounded, and nourishing—like jade or silk—without harshness. It has a liquid, flowing quality that feels smooth and comforting to the ear. - 静 (Jìng) — Tranquil, quiet, or serene
The sound is inherently peaceful and restrained, promoting inner calm. Even in louder passages, it avoids agitation, embodying the guqin's philosophical ideal of subtlety and introspection. - 圆 (Yuán) — Round or harmonious
The tone is full, complete, and well-balanced—without sharp edges or gaps. It feels spherical and enveloping, with smooth transitions between notes and registers. - 匀 (Yún) — Even or uniform
The sound is consistent and balanced across the entire range (high, middle, and low registers), with no weak spots. Harmonics, scattered tones, and pressed tones all maintain equal quality and volume. - 清 (Qīng) — Clear or pure
The timbre is bright, crystalline, and unclouded—like clear water or a bell—free from impurities, noise, or dullness. It conveys purity and refinement. - 芳 (Fāng) — Fragrant or aromatic
The most poetic and elusive virtue: the sound has a lingering, sweet aftertaste or "fragrance" that delights and refreshes the senses long after the note fades, like a subtle perfume in the air. It implies an enchanting, memorable quality that elevates the listening experience.
1
pre-Tang
2010 SOLD for RMB 19M by China Guardian
The Wu Di emperor created the Jin dynasty and reunited China. He was extravagant and sensual, and legends attribute 10,000 concubines to him. The third era of his reign is named Taikang.
A qin dated to the 2nd year of Taikang matching 281 CE was sold for RMB 19M from a lower estimate of RMB 6.5M by China Guardian on May 15, 2010, lot 2217. The date is possibly not original.
This instrument is 120 cm long with width 22 cm at shoulder and 17 cm at tail. Its shape and structure are typical of a pre-Tang qin. The body is painted with black lacquer with mother of pearl emblems. Its nickname is Ape Howling at the Green Vine.
This instrument is reputed to feature the nine virtues : strange, ancient, transparent, moist, quiet, round, even, clear, fragrant. It had been owned and repaired by the leading 20th century guqin player Guan Pinghu. In 1977 Guan recorded with that qin the only piece simulating Chinese music in the US extra-terrestrial spacecraft Voyager 2.
It is played with people attending in a concert in the illustration of an article shared by LaiTimes about the cultural code of guqin music.
A qin dated to the 2nd year of Taikang matching 281 CE was sold for RMB 19M from a lower estimate of RMB 6.5M by China Guardian on May 15, 2010, lot 2217. The date is possibly not original.
This instrument is 120 cm long with width 22 cm at shoulder and 17 cm at tail. Its shape and structure are typical of a pre-Tang qin. The body is painted with black lacquer with mother of pearl emblems. Its nickname is Ape Howling at the Green Vine.
This instrument is reputed to feature the nine virtues : strange, ancient, transparent, moist, quiet, round, even, clear, fragrant. It had been owned and repaired by the leading 20th century guqin player Guan Pinghu. In 1977 Guan recorded with that qin the only piece simulating Chinese music in the US extra-terrestrial spacecraft Voyager 2.
It is played with people attending in a concert in the illustration of an article shared by LaiTimes about the cultural code of guqin music.
2
756 Da Sheng Yi Yin
2011 SOLD for RMB 115M by China Guardian
The qin is the traditional Chinese plucked string instrument. The antique variants are now designated as guqin.
The guqin is the first of the four treasures of the scholar, ahead of Chinese go, calligraphy and ink painting. It was known since ancient times and the Chinese tradition likes to assign it with a pre-dynastic origin. Confucius is quoted among the sages who improved the instrument.
The classical seven-string guqin provides a music of great subtlety facilitated by the dots of harmony distributed on the surface. The wooden back is also an invitation to the inscription of poems.
The Imperial guqin are of great rarity. One of them named Da Sheng Yi Yin (legacy of the Great Sage) was sold for RMB 115M by China Guardian on May 22, 2011, lot 3570.
Lacquered in black and brown, it wears a poem and a seal and its harmonics match the months of the Chinese calendar.
Its date possibly refers to the first year of the Suzong emperor of the Tang matching 756 CE, although four other interpretations are also proposed. It probably refers to a historical event instead of the manufacture date of the instrument.
It is piano shaped 120 cm long, in Fuxi style. Its color is chestnut with black strings below th seven emblems. Such qin with rounded neck and larger curvature are classified as palace instruments of the Tang.
Da Sheng Yi Yin (大圣遗音, "Legacy of the Great Sage" or "Musical Legacy of the Sage")
Auction Details
Sold at China Guardian Auctions (Beijing) on May 22, 2011, in a dedicated special session titled "俪松最珍——唐琴大圣遗音" (highlighting its rarity), lot 3570. The final transaction price was RMB 115 million (approximately US$18 million at the time, including buyer's premium). This was a confirmed, successful sale widely reported in Chinese media and auction records as a landmark for Tang-era artifacts. No post-sale issues or cancellations occurred.
Age and Origin
Mid-Tang Dynasty (approximately 8th century, possibly specifically linked to around 756 CE during Emperor Suzong's reign). Attributed to the renowned Lei family workshop (雷氏), one of the most celebrated Tang guqin makers known for superior craftsmanship and tonewood selection. This makes it roughly 1,200–1,300 years old as of the 2011 sale (and over 1,250 years today).
Authentication and Originality
Widely accepted as authentic by experts from institutions like the Palace Museum, auction houses, and guqin scholars. Authentication is based on:
Made primarily from paulownia wood (桐木). Surface lacquer is chestnut-shell brown/black dominant, with some black lacquer and minor vermilion (red) repairs. It shows natural aging cracks (duanwen) that enhance resonance. Preservation is exceptional for its age, though it suffered water rust and graying from early 20th-century neglect (leakage in storage). Overall condition remains excellent, with intact original form and no major structural alterations.
Reworks, Repairs, and Provenance
Represents the pinnacle of Tang guqin craftsmanship, Lei-family legacy, and sonic perfection. Its rarity (few Tang examples survive intact) and imperial aura make it a "national treasure"-level artifact. Often highlighted in discussions of guqin history, tonewood aging traditions, and literati culture.
The guqin is the first of the four treasures of the scholar, ahead of Chinese go, calligraphy and ink painting. It was known since ancient times and the Chinese tradition likes to assign it with a pre-dynastic origin. Confucius is quoted among the sages who improved the instrument.
The classical seven-string guqin provides a music of great subtlety facilitated by the dots of harmony distributed on the surface. The wooden back is also an invitation to the inscription of poems.
The Imperial guqin are of great rarity. One of them named Da Sheng Yi Yin (legacy of the Great Sage) was sold for RMB 115M by China Guardian on May 22, 2011, lot 3570.
Lacquered in black and brown, it wears a poem and a seal and its harmonics match the months of the Chinese calendar.
Its date possibly refers to the first year of the Suzong emperor of the Tang matching 756 CE, although four other interpretations are also proposed. It probably refers to a historical event instead of the manufacture date of the instrument.
It is piano shaped 120 cm long, in Fuxi style. Its color is chestnut with black strings below th seven emblems. Such qin with rounded neck and larger curvature are classified as palace instruments of the Tang.
Da Sheng Yi Yin (大圣遗音, "Legacy of the Great Sage" or "Musical Legacy of the Sage")
Auction Details
Sold at China Guardian Auctions (Beijing) on May 22, 2011, in a dedicated special session titled "俪松最珍——唐琴大圣遗音" (highlighting its rarity), lot 3570. The final transaction price was RMB 115 million (approximately US$18 million at the time, including buyer's premium). This was a confirmed, successful sale widely reported in Chinese media and auction records as a landmark for Tang-era artifacts. No post-sale issues or cancellations occurred.
Age and Origin
Mid-Tang Dynasty (approximately 8th century, possibly specifically linked to around 756 CE during Emperor Suzong's reign). Attributed to the renowned Lei family workshop (雷氏), one of the most celebrated Tang guqin makers known for superior craftsmanship and tonewood selection. This makes it roughly 1,200–1,300 years old as of the 2011 sale (and over 1,250 years today).
Authentication and Originality
Widely accepted as authentic by experts from institutions like the Palace Museum, auction houses, and guqin scholars. Authentication is based on:
- Classic Tang construction (伏羲式/Fuxi style with rounded neck and larger curvature, often classified as palace instruments).
- Core paulownia wood soundboard and typical Tang joinery/sound holes (dragon pool/longchi and phoenix pond/fengzhao on the back).
- Cursive script inscription "大圣遗音" and poetic銘文 (e.g., "巨壑迎秋，寒江印月。万籁悠悠，孤桐飒裂") matching Tang calligraphy and literary styles.
- Sonic qualities aligning with historical descriptions of Lei-family instruments.
It is considered highly original in its core structure—one of the few surviving "true" Tang guqin available in private hands or auctions (most top examples reside in museums like the Palace Museum). It exemplifies all "nine virtues" of ideal guqin sound: 奇 (strange/wonderful), 古 (ancient), 透 (penetrating), 润 (moist/rich), 静 (quiet/tranquil), 圆 (round), 匀 (even), 清 (clear), 芳 (fragrant/aromatic).
Made primarily from paulownia wood (桐木). Surface lacquer is chestnut-shell brown/black dominant, with some black lacquer and minor vermilion (red) repairs. It shows natural aging cracks (duanwen) that enhance resonance. Preservation is exceptional for its age, though it suffered water rust and graying from early 20th-century neglect (leakage in storage). Overall condition remains excellent, with intact original form and no major structural alterations.
Reworks, Repairs, and Provenance
- Repairs/Reworks: Minor lacquer repairs (vermilion patches); the key intervention was a 1947 restoration by master Guan Pinghu (管平湖), who spent months repairing leakage damage after Palace Museum assessment—restoring clear, penetrating, crisp sound (described as 清脆松透, extremely fine quality). No extensive modern reworks altering the Tang structure.
- Provenance: Imperial Qing Palace collection (stored in the southern warehouse of the Hall of Mental Cultivation/养心殿南库, where emperors kept treasures). Post-1911 (after Puyi’s expulsion from the Forbidden City), discovered damaged by the Qing aftermath committee. Briefly in Palace Museum holdings; repaired 1947; later owned by famed collector/connoisseur Wang Shixiang (王世襄), who acquired it in 2003 for RMB 8.91 million (a prior record). Consigned to China Guardian in 2011. Current whereabouts (as of 2026) appear to be in private collection following the sale; it has been referenced in exhibitions and Palace Museum-related contexts but not confirmed as publicly displayed recently.
Represents the pinnacle of Tang guqin craftsmanship, Lei-family legacy, and sonic perfection. Its rarity (few Tang examples survive intact) and imperial aura make it a "national treasure"-level artifact. Often highlighted in discussions of guqin history, tonewood aging traditions, and literati culture.
3
Tang, Zhongni Type
2017 SOLD for RMB 18.4M by China Guardian
An archaic 7 string guqin from the Tang dynasty was sold for RMB 18.4M by China Guardian on June 19, 2017, lot 4903.
It is of Zhongni type which is a reference to Confucius.
It is of Zhongni type which is a reference to Confucius.
4
Song or earlier Shennong Type
2011 SOLD for RMB 17.3M by Poly
Dated from the Song dynasty or earlier, a guqin was sold for RMB 17.3M by Poly on December 6, 2011, lot 5303. It is named Yi Chi Bo from its currently inscribed poem about reflecting the rain.
Its archaic type with a wide body and round back is identified as Shennong from the mythic Divine Farmer credited for inventing that instrument.
This 7 string instrument is 124 cm long with a width of 22 cm at shoulder and 17 cm at tail. It surfaced in 1963 with a poor surface condition and had to be repaired.
Its archaic type with a wide body and round back is identified as Shennong from the mythic Divine Farmer credited for inventing that instrument.
This 7 string instrument is 124 cm long with a width of 22 cm at shoulder and 17 cm at tail. It surfaced in 1963 with a poor surface condition and had to be repaired.
5
1120 Song Shi Jian Yi
2010 SOLD for RMB 137M by Poly
The Huizong emperor, whose political incompetence led to the downfall of the Northern Song, was arguably the most important art lover of all time. At the beginning of Xuanhe, the sixth and final era of his reign, he had a catalog prepared of his collection, listing 6,391 paintings by 231 artists.
The esthete emperor was also a music lover. A self-portrait shows him playing the guqin, the zither with seven plucked strings used since the time of Confucius, 1600 years earlier.
An imperial guqin dated to the second year of Xuanhe, 1120 CE, has remained in a superb condition which has preserved its original sound. Some restorations under the Qing did not alter its sound box. According to the tradition for the most prestigious instruments, its name echoes its sound : Song Shi Jian Yi, stones amidst pine trees.
This classically shaped luxuriously lacquered instrument measures 126 cm overall, 21 cm shoulder wide and 4.7 cm thick.
After having been owned since 1953 by Fan Boyan, a famous guqin player in Shanghai, it was sold on December 5, 2010 by Poly for RMB 137M from a lower estimate of RMB 20M, lot 5681. It is illustrated in the post sale report by People's Daily.
Song Shi Jian Yi (松石间意, "Stones Amidst Pine Trees" or "Intentions Amid Pines and Stones")
Auction Details
Sold at Poly Auctions (Beijing) on December 5, 2010, lot 5681. The final transaction price was RMB 136.64 million (often rounded to RMB 137 million; approximately US$20–22 million, including buyer's premium; hammer around RMB 122 million). This set a world auction record for any musical instrument at the time and remains one of the highest for a guqin. The sale was fully concluded, with extensive contemporary coverage; the buyer was a private collector. Some reports note it was exhibited at the Poly Art Museum in Beijing for a period post-sale (per Chinese regulations for cultural relics in private hands), but no recent public resale or change is documented.
Age and Origin
Northern Song Dynasty (late 11th–early 12th century, associated with Emperor Huizong's era, 1101–1126). Linked to imperial court production during Huizong's reign (a passionate arts patron who amassed vast collections in his "Wanqin Tang"/Hall of Ten Thousand Qins). Roughly 900–1,000 years old at the 2010 sale (over 1,000 years today).
Authentication and Originality
Accepted as authentic Northern Song by experts, based on:
Paulownia-based, with exceptional overall preservation through centuries of careful stewardship. Renowned for superb condition, natural lacquer aging, and intact soundbox integrity. Layered inscriptions remain well-preserved, adding to its historical depth.
Reworks, Repairs, and Provenance
Stands out for its dramatic, multi-layered provenance connecting Song emperor, Su Dongpo, Ming masters, and Qing emperors. Its imperial ties, record inscriptions, and excellent preservation make it a supreme example of guqin as a vessel of elite cultural history. The higher auction price reflected provenance prestige and market timing over sheer age.
In comparison, Da Sheng Yi Yin emphasizes greater antiquity and sonic purity with minimal intervention, while Song Shi Jian Yi excels in historical layering and imperial prestige. Both are pinnacles of surviving antique guqin heritage.
The esthete emperor was also a music lover. A self-portrait shows him playing the guqin, the zither with seven plucked strings used since the time of Confucius, 1600 years earlier.
An imperial guqin dated to the second year of Xuanhe, 1120 CE, has remained in a superb condition which has preserved its original sound. Some restorations under the Qing did not alter its sound box. According to the tradition for the most prestigious instruments, its name echoes its sound : Song Shi Jian Yi, stones amidst pine trees.
This classically shaped luxuriously lacquered instrument measures 126 cm overall, 21 cm shoulder wide and 4.7 cm thick.
After having been owned since 1953 by Fan Boyan, a famous guqin player in Shanghai, it was sold on December 5, 2010 by Poly for RMB 137M from a lower estimate of RMB 20M, lot 5681. It is illustrated in the post sale report by People's Daily.
Song Shi Jian Yi (松石间意, "Stones Amidst Pine Trees" or "Intentions Amid Pines and Stones")
Auction Details
Sold at Poly Auctions (Beijing) on December 5, 2010, lot 5681. The final transaction price was RMB 136.64 million (often rounded to RMB 137 million; approximately US$20–22 million, including buyer's premium; hammer around RMB 122 million). This set a world auction record for any musical instrument at the time and remains one of the highest for a guqin. The sale was fully concluded, with extensive contemporary coverage; the buyer was a private collector. Some reports note it was exhibited at the Poly Art Museum in Beijing for a period post-sale (per Chinese regulations for cultural relics in private hands), but no recent public resale or change is documented.
Age and Origin
Northern Song Dynasty (late 11th–early 12th century, associated with Emperor Huizong's era, 1101–1126). Linked to imperial court production during Huizong's reign (a passionate arts patron who amassed vast collections in his "Wanqin Tang"/Hall of Ten Thousand Qins). Roughly 900–1,000 years old at the 2010 sale (over 1,000 years today).
Authentication and Originality
Accepted as authentic Northern Song by experts, based on:
- Imperial Song aesthetics and construction.
- Extraordinary number of inscriptions (12銘文 plus seals)—the most on any known guqin—including the name by Su Dongpo (Su Shi), plus Ming masters like Shen Zhou, Tang Yin (Tang Bohu), Wen Zhengming, Zhu Yunming, and Wang Chong.
- Qing imperial additions (Kangxi/Qianlong).
Core body is Song-era original, though layered historical interventions make it less "pristine" than some Tang examples. It exemplifies Song court refinement and literati connections.
Paulownia-based, with exceptional overall preservation through centuries of careful stewardship. Renowned for superb condition, natural lacquer aging, and intact soundbox integrity. Layered inscriptions remain well-preserved, adding to its historical depth.
Reworks, Repairs, and Provenance
- Repairs/Reworks: Qing-era renovations (imperial lacquer adjustments and inscriptions under Kangxi/Qianlong emperors) focused on enhancement and maintenance without major destructive changes to the soundbox. No significant modern reworks noted; emphasis on preserving resonance.
- Provenance: Northern Song imperial (Huizong era); passed through Ming literati (evidenced by inscriptions); entered Qing palace collection (cataloged with imperial銘); post-1953 owned by Shanghai guqin master Fan Boyan (樊柏雁). Consigned to Poly in 2010. Current whereabouts (as of 2026) likely remain in private collection, possibly with prior exhibition at Poly Art Museum; no confirmed resale or museum transfer in recent records.
Stands out for its dramatic, multi-layered provenance connecting Song emperor, Su Dongpo, Ming masters, and Qing emperors. Its imperial ties, record inscriptions, and excellent preservation make it a supreme example of guqin as a vessel of elite cultural history. The higher auction price reflected provenance prestige and market timing over sheer age.
In comparison, Da Sheng Yi Yin emphasizes greater antiquity and sonic purity with minimal intervention, while Song Shi Jian Yi excels in historical layering and imperial prestige. Both are pinnacles of surviving antique guqin heritage.
Emperor Huizong's Guqin Collection
Emperor Huizong of Song (宋徽宗, personal name Zhao Ji, 趙佶; reigned 1100–1126 CE) was one of China's most renowned imperial art patrons and practitioners. An accomplished painter, calligrapher, poet, and musician, he was deeply passionate about the guqin (古琴), the ancient seven-stringed zither revered as an instrument of self-cultivation, moral refinement, and harmony with nature in Confucian and literati traditions.
Huizong actively collected famous guqin from across the empire, amassing what historical sources describe as an extraordinarily large collection. He established a dedicated hall in his palace known as the Wanqin Tang (萬琴堂, "Hall of Ten Thousand Qins" or "Pavilion of Ten Thousand Qins"), located within the Xuanhe Hall (宣和殿) complex in the imperial palace at Dongjing (modern Kaifeng). This specialized institution served as a repository and showcase for his guqin treasures, reflecting his enthusiasm for searching nationwide for renowned antique instruments and possibly commissioning new ones through imperial workshops (官琴局).
The "ten thousand" figure is likely hyperbolic—common in historical Chinese accounts for emphasizing grandeur—but it underscores the scale of his obsession. Historical texts, including references in Qinshi Chubian (琴史初編) and imperial biographies, note that Huizong not only collected but also studied guqin varieties, commissioning research from music masters like Liu Bing on different types and forms. He personally played the instrument, as famously depicted in his own painting Ting Qin Tu (聽琴圖, "Listening to the Qin"), preserved in the Palace Museum, Beijing, where he is shown seated and playing amid courtiers in a serene garden setting.
Key Known Guqin Associated with His Collection
Few guqin from this era survive intact due to wars (notably the fall of the Northern Song to the Jurchen Jin in 1127, when many palace treasures were looted or lost), time, and the fragility of wooden instruments. However, several famous examples are traditionally linked to Huizong's Wanqin Tang:
Fate of the Collection
The Northern Song capital fell to the Jin in 1127 (Jingkang Incident), leading to Huizong's capture and the dispersal or destruction of much of the imperial collection. Many artifacts were taken north, lost, or scattered. Surviving pieces often re-emerged through later dynasties (Yuan, Ming, Qing), with imperial collectors like Qing emperors Kangxi and Qianlong adding inscriptions and cases. Today, very few verifiable guqin from Huizong's Wanqin Tang are known to exist in public or private hands, with most top examples in museums (e.g., Palace Museum, Beijing) or highlighted in major auctions.
Huizong's guqin passion exemplifies the instrument's elite cultural status—beyond mere music, it symbolized philosophical depth and imperial refinement. His efforts helped elevate guqin collecting as a hallmark of connoisseurship, influencing later dynasties and contributing to the survival of Tang-Song era traditions in guqin making and appreciation.
Emperor Huizong of Song (宋徽宗, personal name Zhao Ji, 趙佶; reigned 1100–1126 CE) was one of China's most renowned imperial art patrons and practitioners. An accomplished painter, calligrapher, poet, and musician, he was deeply passionate about the guqin (古琴), the ancient seven-stringed zither revered as an instrument of self-cultivation, moral refinement, and harmony with nature in Confucian and literati traditions.
Huizong actively collected famous guqin from across the empire, amassing what historical sources describe as an extraordinarily large collection. He established a dedicated hall in his palace known as the Wanqin Tang (萬琴堂, "Hall of Ten Thousand Qins" or "Pavilion of Ten Thousand Qins"), located within the Xuanhe Hall (宣和殿) complex in the imperial palace at Dongjing (modern Kaifeng). This specialized institution served as a repository and showcase for his guqin treasures, reflecting his enthusiasm for searching nationwide for renowned antique instruments and possibly commissioning new ones through imperial workshops (官琴局).
The "ten thousand" figure is likely hyperbolic—common in historical Chinese accounts for emphasizing grandeur—but it underscores the scale of his obsession. Historical texts, including references in Qinshi Chubian (琴史初編) and imperial biographies, note that Huizong not only collected but also studied guqin varieties, commissioning research from music masters like Liu Bing on different types and forms. He personally played the instrument, as famously depicted in his own painting Ting Qin Tu (聽琴圖, "Listening to the Qin"), preserved in the Palace Museum, Beijing, where he is shown seated and playing amid courtiers in a serene garden setting.
Key Known Guqin Associated with His Collection
Few guqin from this era survive intact due to wars (notably the fall of the Northern Song to the Jurchen Jin in 1127, when many palace treasures were looted or lost), time, and the fragility of wooden instruments. However, several famous examples are traditionally linked to Huizong's Wanqin Tang:
- Song Shi Jian Yi (松石間意, "Intentions Amid Pines and Stones" or "Stones Amidst Pine Trees"): A Northern Song imperial guqin dated to around 1120 CE (second year of the Xuanhe era), produced in the imperial workshop. It was preserved in the Wanqin Tang during the late Northern Song. This instrument later passed through Ming and Qing collections (including inscriptions and a special case made under Emperor Qianlong in 1741–1742). It sold at Poly Auctions in Beijing on December 5, 2010, for RMB 136.64 million (a world record for any musical instrument at the time), confirming its exceptional preservation and provenance tied to Huizong.
- Chun Lei (春雷, "Spring Thunder"): A celebrated Tang Dynasty guqin attributed to the master maker Lei Wei (雷威). It was ranked as the foremost in Huizong's collection and housed in the Wanqin Tang. After the Song fall, it entered Jin imperial hands (Emperor Zhangzong attempted to bury it with him), but was reportedly recovered and passed to later collectors like Qiao Da. It remains one of the most legendary surviving antique guqin, though its exact current location and authenticity debates persist in connoisseur circles.
Fate of the Collection
The Northern Song capital fell to the Jin in 1127 (Jingkang Incident), leading to Huizong's capture and the dispersal or destruction of much of the imperial collection. Many artifacts were taken north, lost, or scattered. Surviving pieces often re-emerged through later dynasties (Yuan, Ming, Qing), with imperial collectors like Qing emperors Kangxi and Qianlong adding inscriptions and cases. Today, very few verifiable guqin from Huizong's Wanqin Tang are known to exist in public or private hands, with most top examples in museums (e.g., Palace Museum, Beijing) or highlighted in major auctions.
Huizong's guqin passion exemplifies the instrument's elite cultural status—beyond mere music, it symbolized philosophical depth and imperial refinement. His efforts helped elevate guqin collecting as a hallmark of connoisseurship, influencing later dynasties and contributing to the survival of Tang-Song era traditions in guqin making and appreciation.
6
early Ming - Yuelu Zhiyin
2014 SOLD for RMB 33M by Poly
The Yuelu Zhiyin guqin, meaning the sound of moon and dew, had been made in early Ming period. It was admired by the Qianlong emperor early in his reign and was attributed the First Class No. 16 in the Qianlong records.
It is 121 cm long with 110 cm string length and the width is 19 cm at head and shoulder and 13.5 cm at tail, in the Zhongni style which is a reference to Confucius. It is painted with black lacquer and the body is covered with tortoise shell and ox hair.
It is illustrated with a dragon pond and a phoenix pond. The upper part of the dragon pond is engraved with Qianlong's imperial poem filled with gold, while the lower part is engraved with a rectangular Qianlong seal filled with gold.
This instrument was sold for RMB 22M by China Guardian on November 21, 2009, lot 2116 and for RMB 33M by Poly on December 3, 2014, lot 5625. The body is nearly intact and the lacquer surface is well preserved. There is no trace of repair.
It is 121 cm long with 110 cm string length and the width is 19 cm at head and shoulder and 13.5 cm at tail, in the Zhongni style which is a reference to Confucius. It is painted with black lacquer and the body is covered with tortoise shell and ox hair.
It is illustrated with a dragon pond and a phoenix pond. The upper part of the dragon pond is engraved with Qianlong's imperial poem filled with gold, while the lower part is engraved with a rectangular Qianlong seal filled with gold.
This instrument was sold for RMB 22M by China Guardian on November 21, 2009, lot 2116 and for RMB 33M by Poly on December 3, 2014, lot 5625. The body is nearly intact and the lacquer surface is well preserved. There is no trace of repair.
- Notes: Set prior record before 2010 surge; Ming examples often fetch strong prices due to literati associations.
7
later Ming - Yu Shu Tang
2010 SOLD for RMB 58M by Suzhou Wumen
Auction attributes :
Yu Shu Tang (or similar late Ming guqin)
This 128 cm long undated instrument is of the Jiaoye type, in English banana leaf, so named for its wavy edges. It has lost its bottom. It is painted in black and red and is inscribed Yu Shu Tang.
Built at the end of the Ming Dynasty, Yu Shu Tang was an official residence in the city of Qufu which served to receive emperors and imperial envoys visiting the Confucian temple. Qufu was the hometown of Confucius, who is the most ancient witness to the use of the guqin.
The construction of this instrument is very luxurious, and there is no doubt that it was played in the Yu Shu Tang. Experts believe that it later belonged to the Qianlong emperor.
A guqin from the Ming dynasty was sold for RMB 17.3M by China Guardian on June 12, 2023, lot 4612. It is 125 cm long with a width of 20 cm at shoulder and 13.5 cm at tail.
Yu Shu Tang (or similar late Ming guqin)
- Dynasty/Period: Late Ming (ca. 16th–17th century).
- Auction: Suzhou Wumen Auction (suburban Shanghai), November 15, 2010.
- Price: RMB 58 million (approx. US$8.73 million).
- Notes: Highlighted as a major sale in the 2010 boom; specific name variations in reports, but confirmed as a high-end Ming piece.
This 128 cm long undated instrument is of the Jiaoye type, in English banana leaf, so named for its wavy edges. It has lost its bottom. It is painted in black and red and is inscribed Yu Shu Tang.
Built at the end of the Ming Dynasty, Yu Shu Tang was an official residence in the city of Qufu which served to receive emperors and imperial envoys visiting the Confucian temple. Qufu was the hometown of Confucius, who is the most ancient witness to the use of the guqin.
The construction of this instrument is very luxurious, and there is no doubt that it was played in the Yu Shu Tang. Experts believe that it later belonged to the Qianlong emperor.
A guqin from the Ming dynasty was sold for RMB 17.3M by China Guardian on June 12, 2023, lot 4612. It is 125 cm long with a width of 20 cm at shoulder and 13.5 cm at tail.
1745 Xiangjiang Qiubi qin
2016 SOLD for HK$ 56M by Sotheby's
The Qianlong Emperor (Qianlong, 乾隆皇帝; personal name Hongli, 弘曆; reigned 1735–1796 CE) was one of China's most prolific and influential imperial patrons of the arts during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912). His reign is often regarded as a "golden age" of cultural flourishing, marked by massive compilations of knowledge, expansive collections, and lavish commissions across painting, calligraphy, porcelain, jade, architecture, and literature. While Qianlong's patronage is most famously associated with grand projects like the Siku Quanshu (Complete Library of the Four Treasuries, the largest anthology of Chinese texts ever assembled) and innovations in jade carving or porcelain, his engagement with the guqin (古琴, the ancient seven-stringed zither) reflects his broader commitment to Confucian literati ideals, self-cultivation, and the preservation of classical Chinese heritage.
Qianlong's Personal Connection to the Guqin
Qianlong embodied the ideal of the scholar-emperor. He practiced calligraphy, composed over 40,000 poems, painted, and collected antiquities on a vast scale (his imperial collection exceeded one million items by his death). Historical accounts note that he played the guqin himself, aligning with the Confucian tradition where the instrument symbolized moral refinement, harmony with nature, and inner tranquility—qualities Qianlong sought to project as a legitimate ruler mediating between Heaven and Earth. The guqin was one of the "four arts" (琴棋書畫: qin, chess, calligraphy, painting) expected of cultivated gentlemen, and Qianlong's involvement elevated it within court culture.
Patronage Through Commissions and Imperial Workshops
Qianlong actively commissioned guqin through the imperial workshops (notably the Zaobanchu, 造辦處, or imperial manufactory system, which produced luxury items for the court). These were crafted to exacting standards, often incorporating luxurious materials like paulownia wood (wutong), cinnabar lacquer, jade fittings, and deliberate "antique" crackle patterns (duanwen) to evoke ancient prestige.
Preservation, Collection, and Inscriptions on Existing Guqin
Qianlong was a fervent collector and "restorer" of antiquities. He inscribed poems and seals on many inherited pieces, including famous guqin from earlier dynasties, to link his reign to historical greatness.
Broader Cultural Context
Qianlong's guqin patronage fit his overarching agenda: legitimizing Manchu rule through Han Chinese Confucian traditions, promoting elite arts, and amassing treasures that symbolized imperial splendor. Unlike Emperor Huizong's obsessive "Wanqin Tang" (Hall of Ten Thousand Qins), Qianlong's efforts were more selective and integrative—part of a vast cultural machine involving court artisans, scholars, and Jesuit influences (e.g., via artists like Giuseppe Castiglione). While not as singularly focused on guqin as some predecessors, his commissions and interventions helped preserve and elevate the instrument's status in the late imperial era.
In summary, Qianlong's guqin patronage exemplified his role as a preserver, innovator, and connoisseur of Chinese arts—using the instrument to embody scholarly virtue, historical continuity, and imperial magnificence during one of China's most culturally rich periods. Surviving examples remain among the most prized antique guqin in auctions and collections today.
Qianlong's Personal Connection to the Guqin
Qianlong embodied the ideal of the scholar-emperor. He practiced calligraphy, composed over 40,000 poems, painted, and collected antiquities on a vast scale (his imperial collection exceeded one million items by his death). Historical accounts note that he played the guqin himself, aligning with the Confucian tradition where the instrument symbolized moral refinement, harmony with nature, and inner tranquility—qualities Qianlong sought to project as a legitimate ruler mediating between Heaven and Earth. The guqin was one of the "four arts" (琴棋書畫: qin, chess, calligraphy, painting) expected of cultivated gentlemen, and Qianlong's involvement elevated it within court culture.
Patronage Through Commissions and Imperial Workshops
Qianlong actively commissioned guqin through the imperial workshops (notably the Zaobanchu, 造辦處, or imperial manufactory system, which produced luxury items for the court). These were crafted to exacting standards, often incorporating luxurious materials like paulownia wood (wutong), cinnabar lacquer, jade fittings, and deliberate "antique" crackle patterns (duanwen) to evoke ancient prestige.
- A prominent example is the Xiangjiang Qiubi (湘江秋碧, "Clear Autumn Skies above the Xiang River"), commissioned in 1745 (10th year of Qianlong). Made from an old wutong tree under imperial decree, it was one of four such instruments produced that year. Features include pearl-string (lianzhu) style, cinnabar lacquer with incised archaic crackles, celadon jade fittings (pegs, goose feet, ridge), and extensive inscriptions: an imperial poem in the dragon pool (longchi) praising the instrument's qualities, dated clerical-script text confirming its creation, and calligraphy by court officials like Wang Youdun and Zhang Ruo'ai. This guqin sold at Sotheby's Hong Kong in 2016 for HK$56 million, highlighting its rarity as a surviving imperial commission.
- Other records mention Qianlong-era guqin from around 1789 (e.g., examples with yellow cloth covers and exquisite decorations), though fewer survive intact.
Preservation, Collection, and Inscriptions on Existing Guqin
Qianlong was a fervent collector and "restorer" of antiquities. He inscribed poems and seals on many inherited pieces, including famous guqin from earlier dynasties, to link his reign to historical greatness.
- He added inscriptions and a special case to the Northern Song Song Shi Jian Yi (松石间意), originally from Emperor Huizong's collection (ca. 1120 CE). This enhanced its provenance and preservation, contributing to its record sale (RMB 136.64 million in 2010).
Broader Cultural Context
Qianlong's guqin patronage fit his overarching agenda: legitimizing Manchu rule through Han Chinese Confucian traditions, promoting elite arts, and amassing treasures that symbolized imperial splendor. Unlike Emperor Huizong's obsessive "Wanqin Tang" (Hall of Ten Thousand Qins), Qianlong's efforts were more selective and integrative—part of a vast cultural machine involving court artisans, scholars, and Jesuit influences (e.g., via artists like Giuseppe Castiglione). While not as singularly focused on guqin as some predecessors, his commissions and interventions helped preserve and elevate the instrument's status in the late imperial era.
In summary, Qianlong's guqin patronage exemplified his role as a preserver, innovator, and connoisseur of Chinese arts—using the instrument to embody scholarly virtue, historical continuity, and imperial magnificence during one of China's most culturally rich periods. Surviving examples remain among the most prized antique guqin in auctions and collections today.
During the second year of the Yongzheng emperor, the young prince Hongli is studying in a library of the imperial city. This Wutong Library is named in reference to a pair of sycamore trees placed from immemorial time at the entrance of the pavilion. One of them has already withered away and was replaced, symbolizing the regeneration.
Hongli has become the Qianlong emperor. The second wutong tree passes in its turn during the ninth year of the new reign. Qianlong orders by imperial decree that the wood of the old tree is used to make four qin.
The qin was honored under the Tang and the Song as the first in the list of the four treasures of the scholar. This luxurious zither with seven plucked strings offered the ultimate Chinese music. During the Qing dynasty, the qin is a scarce instrument that revives the past.
The realization of the four Qianlong qin is documented in considerable detail in the imperial books, with the identification of officers, eunuchs and workmen. Each instrument is marked with another imperial poem. They are delivered to the Emperor on the 20th day of the 10th month of the 11th year of the reign, matching 1745 CE.
One of the four qin survives. Identified as the Xiangjiang Qiubi meaning Clear Autumn skies above the Xiang River, it is of Lianzhu (pearl string) style with total length 101 cm, shoulder width 16.5 cm and tail width 11.5 cm. It is lavishly made with cinnabar lacquered outer walls. It is incised with dragons, phoenix, goose feet and cranes, and inscribed. Crackles had been originally added to resemble an archaic instrument.
Conceived for prestige, it was sparingly played. The strings have been professionally replaced. It was sold for HK $ 56M from a lower estimate of HK $ 25M by Sotheby's on October 5, 2016, lot 3605, and for RMB 30.5M by Poly on June 14, 2024, lot 6305. It is detailed and illustrated in the 2024 post sale release shared by The Value.
Hongli has become the Qianlong emperor. The second wutong tree passes in its turn during the ninth year of the new reign. Qianlong orders by imperial decree that the wood of the old tree is used to make four qin.
The qin was honored under the Tang and the Song as the first in the list of the four treasures of the scholar. This luxurious zither with seven plucked strings offered the ultimate Chinese music. During the Qing dynasty, the qin is a scarce instrument that revives the past.
The realization of the four Qianlong qin is documented in considerable detail in the imperial books, with the identification of officers, eunuchs and workmen. Each instrument is marked with another imperial poem. They are delivered to the Emperor on the 20th day of the 10th month of the 11th year of the reign, matching 1745 CE.
One of the four qin survives. Identified as the Xiangjiang Qiubi meaning Clear Autumn skies above the Xiang River, it is of Lianzhu (pearl string) style with total length 101 cm, shoulder width 16.5 cm and tail width 11.5 cm. It is lavishly made with cinnabar lacquered outer walls. It is incised with dragons, phoenix, goose feet and cranes, and inscribed. Crackles had been originally added to resemble an archaic instrument.
Conceived for prestige, it was sparingly played. The strings have been professionally replaced. It was sold for HK $ 56M from a lower estimate of HK $ 25M by Sotheby's on October 5, 2016, lot 3605, and for RMB 30.5M by Poly on June 14, 2024, lot 6305. It is detailed and illustrated in the 2024 post sale release shared by The Value.
Instrument Details
- Name: Xiangjiang Qiubi (湘江秋碧, "Clear Autumn Skies above the Xiang River"). This name is inscribed in seal script within the phoenix pond (fengzhao) sound hole on the underside, impressed with a cinnabar seal reading yushang ("Appreciated by his majesty").
- Dynasty/Period: Qing Dynasty, Qianlong period, specifically dated to the autumn of the 10th year of Qianlong's reign (corresponding to 1745 CE). It was crafted in the imperial workshop known as Butongshuwu ("Replenished Wutong Library") in Suzhou, under the supervision of Tula (a commissioner of the Suzhou imperial manufactory). The design follows guidelines from the Qinding Lulu Zhengyi (an imperial musical encyclopedia).
- Type and Physical Characteristics: A pearl-string (lianzhu) style guqin (seven-stringed zither), made from wutong (paulownia) wood for the core soundboard. The body tapers gently with a convex upper surface and cusped edges at the neck and waist. Key features include:
- Length: 101 cm overall; effective cord length: 91 cm; head width: 14.5 cm; shoulder width: 16.5 cm; tail width: 11.5 cm.
- Exterior: Evenly coated in cinnabar (red) lacquer, intricately incised to simulate ancient crackle patterns—prunus crackles (meihua duan) and serpent belly crackles (shefu duan)—for an aged aesthetic. Decorated with traces of cranes and clouds on the front surface (near the ridge and 7th stud).
- Fittings: Two peg guards supporting seven celadon jade tuning pegs; two circular celadon jade goose feet (yanzu); pale celadon jade panels for the ridge (yueshan), brow (dew receptacle), dragon gum (longyin), gum support, scorched tail, and tail support. Inlaid vertically with 13 golden studs (hui) on the front.
- Underside: Four apertures including a rectangular peg pool, ruyi-shaped dragon pool (longchi) and phoenix pond (fengzhao), and an oval sound hole (over 2 inches long) between the dragon pool and goose feet. The unlacquered wutong interior is visible through these, revealing inscriptions.
- Strings and Condition: Originally silk strings (seven chords); professionally replaced in modern times along with loops. Near-pristine preservation with minor age-related issues like faint crackles around edges, insignificant bruising, shrinkage at the tail, and minor retouching to fragile areas (e.g., peg guards). One outer goose foot is a later Qing addition, but all other accessories are original. The dense crackle network enhances its antique appeal without compromising structure.
- Inscriptions:
- Imperial poem in the dragon pool (longchi): A Qianlong-composed eulogy to the qin in clerical script, marked yuzhi ("imperial composition") and impressed with a cinnabar seal Qianlong yubi ("Qianlong imperial brush"). Excerpt (translated): "Knowing nothing of 'plucking,' 'pulling'—I know the zither’s feeling! ... I love this one! For, just as well, it serves my every need!"
- Dated inscription in the oval sound hole: In clerical script, confirming the 1745 creation date and imperial guidelines, followed by a cinnabar seal possibly reading bide ("virtuous [as jade]").
- Additional calligraphy by court officials Wang Youdun (汪由敦, 1692–1758) and Zhang Ruo'ai (張若靄, 1713–1746), praising the instrument's craftsmanship and sonic qualities.
- Authentication and Originality: Considered an authentic imperial commission, with all core elements (wood, lacquer, jade fittings) original to 1745. The simulated crackles are intentional Qing-era artistry to evoke antiquity, not repairs. Experts note its rarity as one of the few surviving Qianlong-supervised guqin with such detailed inscriptions and jade embellishments, emphasizing its prestige (sparingly played, as per records).
- Preservation and Reworks/Repairs: Excellent condition for its age; no major reworks beyond the noted later goose foot and modern string replacement. The lacquer and crackles are well-preserved, with only minor fading to some inscription characters.
- Provenance:
- Commissioned for the Qianlong Emperor's court.
- Yamanaka & Co., New York (early 20th century dealers in Asian art).
- Sold at Parke-Bernet Galleries (predecessor to Sotheby's) in "Oriental Art: Third and Final Part of the Entire Stock of the New York Store of Yamanaka & Co, Inc., By Order of the Alien Property Custodian of the United States," June 28, 1944, lot 23.
- Collection of F. Bailey Vanderhoef Jr. (1913–2008), Ojai, California.
- Exhibited: "Oriental Lacquer" at Santa Barbara Museum of Art, 1976 (cat. no. 8).
- Historical and Cultural Significance: Exemplifies Qianlong's patronage of the arts, blending musical function with decorative luxury (jade and lacquer). As an imperial guqin, it symbolizes literati refinement and harmony with nature. Rarely played due to its prestige, it was designed for courtly appreciation. Later re-sold at Poly Auctions Beijing on June 14, 2024, lot 6305, for RMB 30.5 million (a lower price, possibly due to market shifts post-2016).
- Auction House: Sotheby's Hong Kong.
- Sale Date: October 5, 2016.
- Sale Name/Number: Important Chinese Art (HK0675).
- Lot Number: 3605.
- Estimate: HK$25,000,000–30,000,000.
- Realized Price: HK$56,000,000 (approximately US$7.2 million at the time, including buyer's premium). This made it one of the highest-priced guqin at international auction houses outside mainland China at the time.
- Notes: Bidding was competitive, exceeding the high estimate by nearly double. The sale occurred during a strong period for Chinese imperial artifacts, but the 2024 re-sale at Poly suggests fluctuating market values for Qing-era pieces compared to older Tang/Song examples.
An Imperial Cinnabar Lacquer Wutong Qin Ql from 1745 sells for HK$55.5/US$7.2m – far over est. and record for a Qing musical instrument pic.twitter.com/cXLtyQUWgR
— Sotheby's (@Sothebys) October 5, 2016
bianzhong
1
1715 pair of Kangxi Dragon ritual bells
2009 SOLD for HK$ 45.5M by Christie's
Since the time of Confucius and the Zhou dynasty, music is a way to commune with the world and to guide the emperor on the path of harmony and serenity. Since those early days, the theory is highly structured, based on a scale of twelve notes per octave.
The variety of sounds necessary for a perfect interpretation of nature, of earth and sky and also of yin and yang leads to the system of the eight tones (ba yin) according to the eight possible materials of the instrument. Schaeffner considers the ba yin as probably the oldest classification of musical instruments worldwide. In the ba yin, the metal is represented mainly by the bronze chime (bianzhong).
A complete bianzhong from 2,500 years ago found in the tomb identified as Marquis Yi's consists of 64 bells assembled in several racks, covering five octaves of twelve tones and whose operation required five musicians. Each almond shaped Yi bell offers two tones depending on whether it is hit from front or from side. The pieces vary in the thickness of the wall.
Bianzhong (編鐘), or ancient Chinese chime bells, are one of the most significant musical instruments in Chinese history, embodying profound cultural, philosophical, technological, and political importance from the Bronze Age through the imperial era.
Origins and Technological Achievement
Bianzhong originated in ancient China, with the earliest clapperless bronze bells dating back to around 2100 BCE, but organized sets (bianzhong, meaning "arranged bells") fully developed during the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE). China is recognized as the earliest civilization to manufacture and use tuned musical chimes. These bells, cast in bronze and hung in wooden frames, were struck with mallets to produce melodic tones. Many sets span multiple octaves, with some bells capable of producing two distinct pitches depending on the striking point (earning the nickname "one bell, two sounds").
The famous set from the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng (c. 433 BCE, Warring States period) is a landmark discovery: 65 bells covering over five octaves, demonstrating advanced metallurgy, precise tuning, and even early forms of chromaticism. This set, excavated in 1978, remains one of the most intact and sophisticated ancient musical instruments known.
Ritual, Philosophical, and Social Significance
In ancient China, bianzhong were far more than musical tools—they symbolized power, rank, and the Mandate of Heaven. Only the emperor, nobility, and high officials could own or use them, serving as markers of social hierarchy and divine authority. They were integral to Confucian ideals, where music promoted harmony, discipline, and moral governance. Confucius emphasized music's role in education and statecraft, with bianzhong central to ritual performances that reinforced cosmic and social order.
They accompanied sacrificial rites, ancestral worship, court ceremonies, banquets, and state events, often paired with stone chimes (bianqing) in elaborate orchestras. In the Zhou system of "rites and music," bianzhong helped maintain spiritual and political stability.
Continuity into the Imperial Era (Including Qing Dynasty)
The tradition persisted through dynasties, with standardized construction by the Song dynasty (960–1279 CE). In the Qing dynasty (1644–1911), emperors like Kangxi (r. 1661–1722) and Qianlong (r. 1735–1796) revived archaic styles for imperial ritual bells, often gilt-bronze with dragon motifs to evoke antiquity and legitimacy. These were cast in sets of 16 (covering 12 tones plus repeats), used in Confucian rituals at imperial altars, enthronement ceremonies, ancestral sacrifices, and grand banquets.
The Kangxi and Qianlong bells referenced below represent this revival: archaistic yet opulent, blending Zhou-inspired forms with Qing imperial symbolism to affirm continuity of rule and cultural heritage.
Enduring Legacy
Bianzhong highlight China's extraordinary bronze-casting expertise, early acoustic science, and the deep interconnection of music, ritual, and power. Today, replicas (like those of Marquis Yi's set) are performed worldwide, preserving this ancient sound and underscoring its role in Chinese cultural identity. Archaeological finds continue to reveal their importance, as seen in recent discoveries reinforcing their symbolism of rank, prosperity, and spiritual enlightenment.
The variety of sounds necessary for a perfect interpretation of nature, of earth and sky and also of yin and yang leads to the system of the eight tones (ba yin) according to the eight possible materials of the instrument. Schaeffner considers the ba yin as probably the oldest classification of musical instruments worldwide. In the ba yin, the metal is represented mainly by the bronze chime (bianzhong).
A complete bianzhong from 2,500 years ago found in the tomb identified as Marquis Yi's consists of 64 bells assembled in several racks, covering five octaves of twelve tones and whose operation required five musicians. Each almond shaped Yi bell offers two tones depending on whether it is hit from front or from side. The pieces vary in the thickness of the wall.
Bianzhong (編鐘), or ancient Chinese chime bells, are one of the most significant musical instruments in Chinese history, embodying profound cultural, philosophical, technological, and political importance from the Bronze Age through the imperial era.
Origins and Technological Achievement
Bianzhong originated in ancient China, with the earliest clapperless bronze bells dating back to around 2100 BCE, but organized sets (bianzhong, meaning "arranged bells") fully developed during the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE). China is recognized as the earliest civilization to manufacture and use tuned musical chimes. These bells, cast in bronze and hung in wooden frames, were struck with mallets to produce melodic tones. Many sets span multiple octaves, with some bells capable of producing two distinct pitches depending on the striking point (earning the nickname "one bell, two sounds").
The famous set from the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng (c. 433 BCE, Warring States period) is a landmark discovery: 65 bells covering over five octaves, demonstrating advanced metallurgy, precise tuning, and even early forms of chromaticism. This set, excavated in 1978, remains one of the most intact and sophisticated ancient musical instruments known.
Ritual, Philosophical, and Social Significance
In ancient China, bianzhong were far more than musical tools—they symbolized power, rank, and the Mandate of Heaven. Only the emperor, nobility, and high officials could own or use them, serving as markers of social hierarchy and divine authority. They were integral to Confucian ideals, where music promoted harmony, discipline, and moral governance. Confucius emphasized music's role in education and statecraft, with bianzhong central to ritual performances that reinforced cosmic and social order.
They accompanied sacrificial rites, ancestral worship, court ceremonies, banquets, and state events, often paired with stone chimes (bianqing) in elaborate orchestras. In the Zhou system of "rites and music," bianzhong helped maintain spiritual and political stability.
Continuity into the Imperial Era (Including Qing Dynasty)
The tradition persisted through dynasties, with standardized construction by the Song dynasty (960–1279 CE). In the Qing dynasty (1644–1911), emperors like Kangxi (r. 1661–1722) and Qianlong (r. 1735–1796) revived archaic styles for imperial ritual bells, often gilt-bronze with dragon motifs to evoke antiquity and legitimacy. These were cast in sets of 16 (covering 12 tones plus repeats), used in Confucian rituals at imperial altars, enthronement ceremonies, ancestral sacrifices, and grand banquets.
The Kangxi and Qianlong bells referenced below represent this revival: archaistic yet opulent, blending Zhou-inspired forms with Qing imperial symbolism to affirm continuity of rule and cultural heritage.
Enduring Legacy
Bianzhong highlight China's extraordinary bronze-casting expertise, early acoustic science, and the deep interconnection of music, ritual, and power. Today, replicas (like those of Marquis Yi's set) are performed worldwide, preserving this ancient sound and underscoring its role in Chinese cultural identity. Archaeological finds continue to reveal their importance, as seen in recent discoveries reinforcing their symbolism of rank, prosperity, and spiritual enlightenment.
The Chinese music, based on a twelve-tone scale, was codified at the time of Confucius. The sound depends on the material of the instrument. The bronze bells or bianzhong constitute chimes. They are suspended from porticoes and struck with mallets. Within a carillon all bells have the same height and it is the thickness of the metal that generates the variety of tones.
Music is the supreme art that offers a perfect interpretation of all elements of nature including yin and yang. The imperial bianzhong are dated, as are the guqin.
In the Qing era, an imperial carillon is composed of sixteen bells including four repeated tones in high and low octaves. The gilt bronze bells are decorated with dragons in high relief.
On May 27, 2009, Christie's sold for HK $ 45.5M from a lower estimate of HK $ 10M a pair of 30 cm high bells giving the 4th and 11th notes, dated Kangxi wushisi nian shi corresponding to 1715 CE, lot 1818.
On December 16, 2019, Tessier et Sarrou sold for € 670K a 21 cm high bell dated Kangxi bing shen nian zhi corresponding to 1716 CE. It is set for the huang zhong which is the basic tone of the scale. The dragons are imperial, with five claws per paw.
Music is the supreme art that offers a perfect interpretation of all elements of nature including yin and yang. The imperial bianzhong are dated, as are the guqin.
In the Qing era, an imperial carillon is composed of sixteen bells including four repeated tones in high and low octaves. The gilt bronze bells are decorated with dragons in high relief.
On May 27, 2009, Christie's sold for HK $ 45.5M from a lower estimate of HK $ 10M a pair of 30 cm high bells giving the 4th and 11th notes, dated Kangxi wushisi nian shi corresponding to 1715 CE, lot 1818.
On December 16, 2019, Tessier et Sarrou sold for € 670K a 21 cm high bell dated Kangxi bing shen nian zhi corresponding to 1716 CE. It is set for the huang zhong which is the basic tone of the scale. The dragons are imperial, with five claws per paw.
2
1743 Qianlong
2008 SOLD for HK $ 33M by Christie's
A 27.3 cm high Qing bell that had belonged to William Randolph Hearst provides the 10th pitch from a bianzhong of sixteen ovoid pieces. It operates in the lower octave and is very heavy, almost 15 kg. It is dated on the 8th year of Qianlong, 1743 CE and bears the imperial Qianlong mark.
It was sold for $ 1.2M by Sotheby's on September 15, 2015, lot 160. Please watch the video shared by Christie's before it passed on November 5, 2019, lot 85.
Coming from another set of the same year, a 21 cm high bianzhong providing the 6th note had been sold for HK $ 33M by Christie's on May 27, 2008. The 10th bell of that chime had been sold for HK $ 17.4M by Christie's on June 3, 2015.
On May 27, 2009, Christie's sold for HK $ 45.5M a pair of Kangxi bells (bianzhong) giving the 4th and 11th notes, lot 1818. Compare with a Qianlong bell sold for HK $ 33M by Christie's on May 27, 2008.
The query references two specific Christie's Hong Kong sales of imperial gilt-bronze ritual bells (bianzhong), which were part of ancient Chinese chime sets and cast in imperial foundries during the Qing dynasty.
It was sold for $ 1.2M by Sotheby's on September 15, 2015, lot 160. Please watch the video shared by Christie's before it passed on November 5, 2019, lot 85.
Coming from another set of the same year, a 21 cm high bianzhong providing the 6th note had been sold for HK $ 33M by Christie's on May 27, 2008. The 10th bell of that chime had been sold for HK $ 17.4M by Christie's on June 3, 2015.
On May 27, 2009, Christie's sold for HK $ 45.5M a pair of Kangxi bells (bianzhong) giving the 4th and 11th notes, lot 1818. Compare with a Qianlong bell sold for HK $ 33M by Christie's on May 27, 2008.
The query references two specific Christie's Hong Kong sales of imperial gilt-bronze ritual bells (bianzhong), which were part of ancient Chinese chime sets and cast in imperial foundries during the Qing dynasty.
- May 27, 2009: A pair of Kangxi-period (Qing dynasty) bianzhong bells, from the Yousaian Collection, sold as lot 1818. These correspond to the 4th and 11th notes (tones/pitches) in the musical scale. They achieved HK$45.5 million (hammer price or including buyer's premium; auction records often cite the total realized). These bells are dated to around 1716 (Kangxi cast marks, corresponding to the 55th year of the reign), with dragon decoration on the exterior—a tradition that began in the Kangxi era (specifically noted as early as Kangxi 54th year, 1715).
- May 27, 2008: A single Qianlong-period imperial gilt-bronze 'dragon' ritual bell (bianzhong), cast with a five-character mark corresponding to 1743 (Qianlong 8th year, of the period), sold for HK$33 million. This was lot 1540 in the Important Chinese Ceramics and Works of Art sale, marked as zhonglu (denoting the 6th tone). It features similar dragon decoration but is a single bell from the later Qianlong reign.
- Sale price: The 2009 Kangxi pair realized HK$45.5 million, exceeding the 2008 Qianlong single bell at HK$33 million. This means the Kangxi pair sold for roughly 38% more in total, or about HK$22.75 million per bell on average—still a premium over the Qianlong example.
- Period and rarity: Kangxi-period imperial bianzhong bells (early 18th century) represent the origin of this specific dragon-decorated imperial casting tradition for ritual chime bells. Qianlong examples (mid-18th century) follow the same style but are from a later reign with potentially higher production volume for such ritual items. Auction commentary often highlights the Kangxi bells as foundational to the type, which may contribute to collector appeal.
- Quantity: Pair vs. single—this alone drives much of the price difference, as matched pairs (especially from a set) are rarer and more desirable for collectors/institutions seeking completeness.
- Market context: These sales occurred just before/around the global financial crisis peak (2008–2009), yet Chinese art (especially imperial Qing bronzes/ceramics) showed resilience and strong demand from mainland buyers. The 2009 pair outperforming the 2008 single reflects robust interest in early Qing imperial ritual objects.
- Later references: These specific lots are frequently cited in subsequent auction catalogues (e.g., Christie's 2020s sales of similar Qianlong bells reference the 2008 lot 1540 and the 2009 Kangxi pair lot 1818 as direct comparables for provenance and style).
