Astronomy
not including astrology and cosmography
not including astronomical watches
Except otherwise stated, all results include the premium.
See also : Sciences Ancient science Sciences 1600-1800 Physics Autograph 16th century books 17th century books Ancient England
Chronology : 1680-1699
not including astronomical watches
Except otherwise stated, all results include the premium.
See also : Sciences Ancient science Sciences 1600-1800 Physics Autograph 16th century books 17th century books Ancient England
Chronology : 1680-1699
1505 Ottoman Astrolabe
2014 SOLD for £ 960K by Sotheby's
The map of the respective positions of the stars is immutable although the absolute position varies with latitude, altitude and time. The position of the sun also meets strict rules. The astrolabe is an instrument of very high complexity which allows to correlate all these variables in measurements of great accuracy.
Invented a little more than 2,000 years ago, the astrolabe is the computer of the sky. This ancient star tracker measured the time by locating the position of the sky, provided you know the latitude and, to a lesser extent, the altitude.
The astrolabe was described for the first time around 550 CE in Alexandria but its improvement is essentially the work of the Muslim astronomers. Nearly all celestial phenomena were used as references or studied : solstices, equinoxes, eclipses, planet motions. The precision was so high that the error brought by the precession of the equinoxes can now be used to date the instrument.
In the 10th century an enthusiastic theorist listed about 1,000 different uses of this truly universal instrument, in the etymological meaning of 'universal'. In seeking the knowledge of the sky, astronomers also aimed at astrology and watched the zodiacal signs.
This instrument of very high complexity in its geometrical design and of remarkable sharp engraving reached an angular accuracy around one degree.
The use of the astrolabe extends of course to all the Muslim world as far as Spain, but the most advanced theoretical and practical treatises remain the work of the astronomers of the Middle East.
The ibn al-Saffar brothers worked in Cordoba at the beginning of the 5th century of the Hegira. Ahmed is a very important teacher whose writings will be used for four centuries. Muhammad makes the instruments.
Three astrolabes signed by Muhammad ibn al-Saffar are known. The earliest, dated 411AH corresponding to 1020/1021 in our calendar, was sold for £ 610K by Sotheby's on April 26, 2017, lot 170. It is a big piece 19 cm overall including the suspension loop.
This astrolabe is complete but not entirely original, for a valid reason. Indeed the rete which simulates the map of the sky becomes obsolete after a few decades due to the precession of the equinoxes. The ancient users were aware of this phenomenon and the rete of this instrument was changed in Ottoman Turkey. The position of one of its star pointers suggests a date around 1550 of our calendar for this replacement part.
The mater is the rear side of the instrument. This one is set to the 66° latitude corresponding to the longest day time known by the astronomers in the Antiquity. Six original double-sided removable plates are joined with the indication of latitudes and cities, inviting for a fabulous journey into the medieval Muslim world. From South to North : Yemen, Mecca, Medina, Cairo, Qairawan, Damascus, Malaga, Cordoba, Toledo, Zaragoza.
The astrolabe quadrant was invented ca 1288 by a French Jewish medical doctor and scientific translator. The earliest known of eight surviving examples was sold for £ 730K by Christie's on December 11, 2019, lot 1. It had been made between 1291 and 1311 CE, possibly in Montpellier.
Muslim science proceeds by accumulating knowledge, following the antique science. On March 31, 2021, Sotheby's sold for £ 740K an astrolabe mixing Western and Arab influences, lot 66.
The instrument is dated 737 AH corresponding to 1336-37 CE. It is signed by a craftsman who is not known elsewhere but whose name is significant, Ahmad ibn Abi 'Abdallah al-Qurtubi al-Yamani, located in Tudela, a Navarrese town between Pamplona and Zaragoza. The author's name means that he is of Yemeni origin but had resided in Cordoba, thus combining two of the main centers of production of the astrolabes.
The 12 cm diameter instrument is made of brass. All components except the mater have been gilded, probably later. The alidade, which is used to measure the position of the stars, is missing.
Only one plate has survived. It is for the use of Cordoba with a latitude of 38° 30'. The gap under the rete leaves a place for a second plate. The rete is ornamental although its star pointers are in the pragmatic comma shape, according to Eastern practice.
The throne which carries the suspension holes is in Sevillian style. The structure of the rete seems to be of European inspiration. The choice of the star catalog is Western. The inscriptions are in an elegant mixed Andalusi Kufic script.
Sultan Bayezid II encouraged astronomy. Two astrolabes made for the use of his court are known. One of them was sold for £ 960K from a lower estimate of £ 800K by Sotheby's on October 8, 2014, lot 135.
This brass instrument of 9.5 cm diameter is complete with all its fixed and rotating parts. The knob for the rotation on the central axis is later.
This astrolabe is indeed a masterpiece of Ottoman science, with numerous engraved inscriptions and reduced decoration. The choice of the reference star is made by the user among no less than fifteen star pointers.
It is signed and dated 911 AH, corresponding to 1505 to 1506 CE. The fact that the author is not otherwise recorded just means that he did not write a treatise.
Invented a little more than 2,000 years ago, the astrolabe is the computer of the sky. This ancient star tracker measured the time by locating the position of the sky, provided you know the latitude and, to a lesser extent, the altitude.
The astrolabe was described for the first time around 550 CE in Alexandria but its improvement is essentially the work of the Muslim astronomers. Nearly all celestial phenomena were used as references or studied : solstices, equinoxes, eclipses, planet motions. The precision was so high that the error brought by the precession of the equinoxes can now be used to date the instrument.
In the 10th century an enthusiastic theorist listed about 1,000 different uses of this truly universal instrument, in the etymological meaning of 'universal'. In seeking the knowledge of the sky, astronomers also aimed at astrology and watched the zodiacal signs.
This instrument of very high complexity in its geometrical design and of remarkable sharp engraving reached an angular accuracy around one degree.
The use of the astrolabe extends of course to all the Muslim world as far as Spain, but the most advanced theoretical and practical treatises remain the work of the astronomers of the Middle East.
The ibn al-Saffar brothers worked in Cordoba at the beginning of the 5th century of the Hegira. Ahmed is a very important teacher whose writings will be used for four centuries. Muhammad makes the instruments.
Three astrolabes signed by Muhammad ibn al-Saffar are known. The earliest, dated 411AH corresponding to 1020/1021 in our calendar, was sold for £ 610K by Sotheby's on April 26, 2017, lot 170. It is a big piece 19 cm overall including the suspension loop.
This astrolabe is complete but not entirely original, for a valid reason. Indeed the rete which simulates the map of the sky becomes obsolete after a few decades due to the precession of the equinoxes. The ancient users were aware of this phenomenon and the rete of this instrument was changed in Ottoman Turkey. The position of one of its star pointers suggests a date around 1550 of our calendar for this replacement part.
The mater is the rear side of the instrument. This one is set to the 66° latitude corresponding to the longest day time known by the astronomers in the Antiquity. Six original double-sided removable plates are joined with the indication of latitudes and cities, inviting for a fabulous journey into the medieval Muslim world. From South to North : Yemen, Mecca, Medina, Cairo, Qairawan, Damascus, Malaga, Cordoba, Toledo, Zaragoza.
The astrolabe quadrant was invented ca 1288 by a French Jewish medical doctor and scientific translator. The earliest known of eight surviving examples was sold for £ 730K by Christie's on December 11, 2019, lot 1. It had been made between 1291 and 1311 CE, possibly in Montpellier.
Muslim science proceeds by accumulating knowledge, following the antique science. On March 31, 2021, Sotheby's sold for £ 740K an astrolabe mixing Western and Arab influences, lot 66.
The instrument is dated 737 AH corresponding to 1336-37 CE. It is signed by a craftsman who is not known elsewhere but whose name is significant, Ahmad ibn Abi 'Abdallah al-Qurtubi al-Yamani, located in Tudela, a Navarrese town between Pamplona and Zaragoza. The author's name means that he is of Yemeni origin but had resided in Cordoba, thus combining two of the main centers of production of the astrolabes.
The 12 cm diameter instrument is made of brass. All components except the mater have been gilded, probably later. The alidade, which is used to measure the position of the stars, is missing.
Only one plate has survived. It is for the use of Cordoba with a latitude of 38° 30'. The gap under the rete leaves a place for a second plate. The rete is ornamental although its star pointers are in the pragmatic comma shape, according to Eastern practice.
The throne which carries the suspension holes is in Sevillian style. The structure of the rete seems to be of European inspiration. The choice of the star catalog is Western. The inscriptions are in an elegant mixed Andalusi Kufic script.
Sultan Bayezid II encouraged astronomy. Two astrolabes made for the use of his court are known. One of them was sold for £ 960K from a lower estimate of £ 800K by Sotheby's on October 8, 2014, lot 135.
This brass instrument of 9.5 cm diameter is complete with all its fixed and rotating parts. The knob for the rotation on the central axis is later.
This astrolabe is indeed a masterpiece of Ottoman science, with numerous engraved inscriptions and reduced decoration. The choice of the reference star is made by the user among no less than fifteen star pointers.
It is signed and dated 911 AH, corresponding to 1505 to 1506 CE. The fact that the author is not otherwise recorded just means that he did not write a treatise.
History of astrolabes. Include in the timeline an example made in 1336 CE for the use of Cordoba, sold for £ 740K by Sotheby's on March 31, 2021, lot 66, and an Ottoman example dated 911 AH, sold for £ 960K by Sotheby's on October 8, 2014, lot 135.
The astrolabe is an ancient astronomical instrument, often called the "original smartphone" or "star-taker" (from Greek astrolábos), used to model the visible sky, measure the altitude of celestial bodies (like the Sun or stars), determine local time (day or night), find latitude, survey heights, and perform calculations for navigation, astrology, and religious purposes (e.g., prayer times and qibla direction in the Islamic world).
Its history spans over a millennium, evolving from ancient Greek concepts to a highly refined tool in the Islamic Golden Age, then spreading to medieval Europe and beyond until largely replaced by instruments like the sextant in the 18th century.
Key Timeline in the History of Astrolabes
The astrolabe is an ancient astronomical instrument, often called the "original smartphone" or "star-taker" (from Greek astrolábos), used to model the visible sky, measure the altitude of celestial bodies (like the Sun or stars), determine local time (day or night), find latitude, survey heights, and perform calculations for navigation, astrology, and religious purposes (e.g., prayer times and qibla direction in the Islamic world).
Its history spans over a millennium, evolving from ancient Greek concepts to a highly refined tool in the Islamic Golden Age, then spreading to medieval Europe and beyond until largely replaced by instruments like the sextant in the 18th century.
Key Timeline in the History of Astrolabes
- c. 225–150 BCE (Ancient Greece): Early conceptual foundations emerge. Mathematicians like Apollonius of Perga develop stereographic projection (mapping the 3D celestial sphere onto a 2D plane), the mathematical basis for the planispheric astrolabe. Hipparchus (c. 190–120 BCE) is credited with early ideas or uses related to projecting the sky, though no physical examples survive.
- 2nd century CE: Claudius Ptolemy (c. 100–170 CE) describes related concepts in works like the Almagest, influencing later developments, though he did not invent the plane astrolabe.
- 4th century CE: The earliest clear references appear. Theon of Alexandria (c. 335–405 CE) writes a detailed treatise on the astrolabe (now lost but referenced in later sources). Functional plane astrolabes likely exist by this time or shortly after, evolving from portable sundials and armillary spheres.
- 6th–8th centuries CE: Astrolabes come into wider use. The instrument spreads to the Byzantine Empire and early Islamic world via translations of Greek texts into Arabic/Syriac.
- 8th–9th centuries CE (Islamic Golden Age): Major refinements occur in the Islamic world (e.g., Baghdad, Persia, al-Andalus). Astrolabes become more precise and complex, with additions for prayer times, qibla direction, and astrology. The earliest surviving dated examples appear around the late 9th/early 10th centuries (e.g., Persian astrolabes from the 9th–10th centuries). Makers like those in Isfahan produce sophisticated versions.
- 10th–11th centuries CE: Flourishing in al-Andalus (Muslim Spain). Notable makers include Muhammad ibn al-Saffar (Cordoba, early 11th century), whose works survive and influenced Europe via translations.
- 13th–14th centuries CE: Continued production across Islamic regions, including sophisticated universal astrolabes (e.g., by Ibn al-Sarraj of Aleppo, c. 1328, praised as one of the most advanced medieval instruments).
- 1336–1337 CE (737 AH): A rare gilt-brass astrolabe is made by Ahmad ibn Abu 'Abdallah al-Qurtubi al-Yamani in Tudela (near Cordoba region, northeastern Spain, under Christian rule by then but with Islamic craftsmanship). This example shows Yemeni stylistic influences and reflects cross-cultural exchange in medieval Iberia. It sold at Sotheby's London on March 31, 2021 (Arts of the Islamic World auction, lot 66) for £740,000.
- 15th–16th centuries CE: Ottoman Empire produces ornate astrolabes, often for sultans or treasuries, incorporating precise latitude plates (e.g., for Istanbul/Constantinople) and royal dedications.
- 1505–1506 CE (911 AH): A royal brass astrolabe is crafted by al-Ahmar al-Nujumi al-Rumi for the treasury of Ottoman Sultan Bayezid II (r. 1481–1512). It includes plates for locations like Istanbul (with early accurate latitude measurements) and other key sites. This exceptional piece sold at Sotheby's London on October 8, 2014 (Arts of the Islamic World auction, lot 135) for £960,000.
- 14th–15th centuries CE (Europe): Astrolabes re-enter Europe via Islamic Spain and translations. Geoffrey Chaucer writes A Treatise on the Astrolabe (c. 1391), the first English technical manual on the instrument. European makers (e.g., in Flanders) adapt Islamic designs.
- 16th–18th centuries CE: Astrolabes aid Age of Discovery navigation (mariner's variants for sea use). Production continues in Persia, Ottoman lands, and Europe but declines as sextants, octants, and later telescopes/GPS supersede them.
1540 De Libris Revolutionum by Rheticus
2016 SOLD for £ 1.8M by Christie's
The intense curiosity of the fifteenth century, facilitated by the printed books, generated the modern science. The most advanced universities teach mathematics beside philosophy, theology, law and medicine. Disseminated from Bologna to Vienna or Krakow, humanists exchange new theories together.
Georg Joachim Rheticus was fond of astronomy, perhaps as a result of the appearance of the comet of 1531. He enrolled at the University of Wittenberg led by Melanchthon, the theoretician of Lutheranism.
As early as 1536, Rheticus was appointed professor of mathematics. Barely released from astrology, astronomy was at that time a branch of mathematics. The learned calculations made by Regiomontanus in the previous century had fruitfully revived the speculation about the true movements of the planets.
Two years later, Melanchthon allows Rheticus to suspend his teaching for a tour of Europe where he will visit the humanists. He hears of an old canon who spent his lifetime improving his astronomical calculations at such a point to solve the old issue of the motion of Earth, discussed since antiquity.
Rheticus so becomes the assistant to Copernicus in Frauenburg (Frombork). For nearly thirty years, the canon had refined the text of his demonstration of the heliocentric system, sometimes sending manuscripts to the very few scholars able to understand it. He does not think to edit because of an obvious difficulty to print his figures.
Rheticus supports Copernicus with enthusiasm. The younger scientist prepares a comprehensible summary with the agreement of the master. Printed in Gdansk in 1540, that 'De libris revolutionum ... narratio prima' is the first report ever published on heliocentrism. The theory is clearly and fully attributed to Copernicus without indicating the name of his efficient collaborator.
This first edition is extremely rare. A copy was sold for £ 1.8M from a lower estimate of £ 1.2M by Christie's on July 13, 2016, lot 87.
Georg Joachim Rheticus was fond of astronomy, perhaps as a result of the appearance of the comet of 1531. He enrolled at the University of Wittenberg led by Melanchthon, the theoretician of Lutheranism.
As early as 1536, Rheticus was appointed professor of mathematics. Barely released from astrology, astronomy was at that time a branch of mathematics. The learned calculations made by Regiomontanus in the previous century had fruitfully revived the speculation about the true movements of the planets.
Two years later, Melanchthon allows Rheticus to suspend his teaching for a tour of Europe where he will visit the humanists. He hears of an old canon who spent his lifetime improving his astronomical calculations at such a point to solve the old issue of the motion of Earth, discussed since antiquity.
Rheticus so becomes the assistant to Copernicus in Frauenburg (Frombork). For nearly thirty years, the canon had refined the text of his demonstration of the heliocentric system, sometimes sending manuscripts to the very few scholars able to understand it. He does not think to edit because of an obvious difficulty to print his figures.
Rheticus supports Copernicus with enthusiasm. The younger scientist prepares a comprehensible summary with the agreement of the master. Printed in Gdansk in 1540, that 'De libris revolutionum ... narratio prima' is the first report ever published on heliocentrism. The theory is clearly and fully attributed to Copernicus without indicating the name of his efficient collaborator.
This first edition is extremely rare. A copy was sold for £ 1.8M from a lower estimate of £ 1.2M by Christie's on July 13, 2016, lot 87.
13 juillet Vente des livres scientifiques de la bibliothèque Beltrame Consultez le catalogue https://t.co/akp7LGW1ji pic.twitter.com/CtcSeM2uMW
— Christie's Paris (@christiesparis) July 1, 2016
1543 De Revolutionibus by Copernicus
2008 SOLD for $ 2.2M by Christie's
The exact title was "Nicolai Copernici Torinensis De Revolutionibus orbium coelestium." It was printed in 1543 and appeared just before the author's death. Torun was the name of his hometown. This book forever changed the ideas we had of the universe
Of relatively small size (20 x 27 cm, 202 pages), it is illustrated with woodcuts and tables of calculations.
A copy of the first edition was sold for $ 2.2M from a lower estimate of $ 900K by Christie's on June 17, 2008. In its flexible binding of same period, it was part of a prestigious library during the seventeenth century.
Of relatively small size (20 x 27 cm, 202 pages), it is illustrated with woodcuts and tables of calculations.
A copy of the first edition was sold for $ 2.2M from a lower estimate of $ 900K by Christie's on June 17, 2008. In its flexible binding of same period, it was part of a prestigious library during the seventeenth century.
1601-1605 Scientific Manuscript by Kepler
2022 SOLD for $ 1M by Bonhams
Johannes Kepler, born in a modest family, had an early interest in astronomy. He endeavored to help his mother accused of witchcraft. His intuition that astrology meets exact mechanisms that can be described in models made him the first modern physicist.
Kepler understood that the heliocentric model of Copernicus was not enough. The demonstration proposed by Copernicus is admirable but is indeed nothing more than a calculation.
Kepler had a poor eyesight and was not himself an astronomer. He joined the team of Tycho Brahe in Prague. Kepler used the highly accurate observations made by Brahe while opposing his planetary system that did not explain the orbit of Mars. His own work led him to demonstrate that the orbit of a planet is not circular but elliptical.
He now sees the sun as a motor that generates a greater speed when the planet is closer and compares this effect to a magnet. Newton will rely directly on Kepler's results to formulate the law of universal gravitation.
Kepler prepares from 1600 to 1606 the presentation of his first two laws, summarized above. A dispute with Brahe's heirs suspends the publication until 1609. The title, Astronomia nova, shows Kepler's rightful ambition to offer a completely new approach in this domain. Astrophysics was indeed born with this book.
The printed quantity is very small : the author is an employee of the Emperor Rudolph II and the edition is done without a commercial intent. To compensate for some salary delays, Kepler obtains the right to sell a few copies.
A copy of Astronomia Nova which belonged to the Royal Institution of Great Britain was sold for £ 146K by Christie's on December 1, 2015, lot 245. Other copies were sold for £ 212K by Sotheby's on May 20, 2014, and for $ 230K by Christie's on June 17, 2008.
The next scientific wonder is the development of abstract mathematics with Napier's theory of the logarithms, published in 1614, simplifying the multiplication by establishing a corresponding table which can be used by addition.
The second law of Kepler, about the speed of the planets, was better characterized by him as the fact that a line segment between a planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time. He will be one of the earliest scientific users of the logarithms. His third law, known as the harmonic law, defines a relationship between the distance of planets from the Sun, and their orbital periods.
On October 25, 2022, Bonhams sold for $ 880K an autograph working scientific manuscript in Latin by Johannes Kepler, in four pages 22 x 34 cm, lot 1009.
That early trial of using logarithms for calculating the movements of the planets is densely written with many deletions and emendations. Its terminus post quem is 1618 when Kepler got a copy of Napier's tables. The terminus ante quem is the publishing by Kepler of his third law in 1619. The manuscript narrated above was published by him in 1620.
Kepler understood that the heliocentric model of Copernicus was not enough. The demonstration proposed by Copernicus is admirable but is indeed nothing more than a calculation.
Kepler had a poor eyesight and was not himself an astronomer. He joined the team of Tycho Brahe in Prague. Kepler used the highly accurate observations made by Brahe while opposing his planetary system that did not explain the orbit of Mars. His own work led him to demonstrate that the orbit of a planet is not circular but elliptical.
He now sees the sun as a motor that generates a greater speed when the planet is closer and compares this effect to a magnet. Newton will rely directly on Kepler's results to formulate the law of universal gravitation.
Kepler prepares from 1600 to 1606 the presentation of his first two laws, summarized above. A dispute with Brahe's heirs suspends the publication until 1609. The title, Astronomia nova, shows Kepler's rightful ambition to offer a completely new approach in this domain. Astrophysics was indeed born with this book.
The printed quantity is very small : the author is an employee of the Emperor Rudolph II and the edition is done without a commercial intent. To compensate for some salary delays, Kepler obtains the right to sell a few copies.
A copy of Astronomia Nova which belonged to the Royal Institution of Great Britain was sold for £ 146K by Christie's on December 1, 2015, lot 245. Other copies were sold for £ 212K by Sotheby's on May 20, 2014, and for $ 230K by Christie's on June 17, 2008.
The next scientific wonder is the development of abstract mathematics with Napier's theory of the logarithms, published in 1614, simplifying the multiplication by establishing a corresponding table which can be used by addition.
The second law of Kepler, about the speed of the planets, was better characterized by him as the fact that a line segment between a planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time. He will be one of the earliest scientific users of the logarithms. His third law, known as the harmonic law, defines a relationship between the distance of planets from the Sun, and their orbital periods.
On October 25, 2022, Bonhams sold for $ 880K an autograph working scientific manuscript in Latin by Johannes Kepler, in four pages 22 x 34 cm, lot 1009.
That early trial of using logarithms for calculating the movements of the planets is densely written with many deletions and emendations. Its terminus post quem is 1618 when Kepler got a copy of Napier's tables. The terminus ante quem is the publishing by Kepler of his third law in 1619. The manuscript narrated above was published by him in 1620.
Compare Kepler's autograph scientific manuscript on the relative velocity of the moon and sun, sold for $1,008,375 by Bonhams on December 13, 2022, lot 19, and Kepler's autograph working scientific manuscript on the movements of planets, sold for $882,375 by Bonhams on October 25, 2022, lot 1009.
Here is a detailed comparison of the two Johannes Kepler autograph scientific manuscripts sold by Bonhams in New York in late 2022. Both are extremely rare—only a handful of Kepler's scientific manuscripts have appeared at auction in the past century—and both represent working drafts reflecting his groundbreaking investigations into planetary (and related celestial) motion, which culminated in his three laws of planetary motion.
Shared Attributes
Here is a detailed comparison of the two Johannes Kepler autograph scientific manuscripts sold by Bonhams in New York in late 2022. Both are extremely rare—only a handful of Kepler's scientific manuscripts have appeared at auction in the past century—and both represent working drafts reflecting his groundbreaking investigations into planetary (and related celestial) motion, which culminated in his three laws of planetary motion.
Shared Attributes
- Format and Condition: Each consists of 4 pages (2 conjoined leaves) of autograph material in Latin, densely written with calculations, deletions, emendations, and struck-through sections (still legible). Both show typical signs of working drafts: frayed edges, minor foxing, folds, and small imperfections without significant text loss.
- Physical Size: Approximately quarto/4to scale (October: ~221 x 340 mm whole leaf folded; December: ~205 x 321 mm whole sheet).
- Auction House and Sale Type: Bonhams New York, in sales focused on science/history of science (October in "History of Science and Technology, including Space History"; December in "Fine Books and Manuscripts").
- Rarity and Significance: Described as among the rarest Kepler items, with both setting or breaking auction records for his autograph scientific manuscripts. They are explicitly linked in Bonhams' descriptions and press as the only two such scientific manuscripts to appear at auction in nearly 100 years (with the December one from the Stefan Zweig collection).
- Provenance/Importance: Both highlight Kepler's use of empirical data (from Tycho Brahe or later tools) to refine orbital theories, building on Copernicus.
- October 25, 2022 – Lot 1009 ("Kepler on the Movement of Planets"): Sold for $882,375 (including buyer's premium). Pre-sale estimate: $400,000–$600,000. This established an initial world auction record for a Kepler scientific autograph manuscript.
- December 13, 2022 – Lot 19 ("Kepler Investigates Planetary Motion"): Sold for $1,008,375 (including buyer's premium). Pre-sale estimate: $400,000–$600,000. This surpassed the October record, becoming the higher benchmark for Kepler autograph scientific material.
- October Manuscript: Focuses on using logarithms (a novel tool at the time, introduced by John Napier in 1614) to calculate the relative movements/orbits of the planets. It includes numerous drafts, preliminary calculations, and emendations. Dated not before 1617 (Kepler's familiarity with logarithms via publications around 1617–1618). Written on the reused address leaf of a letter to his late wife Barbara Müller (d. 1611). This reflects Kepler's later-period mathematical innovation to refine planetary motion models.
- December Manuscript: Contains calculations and notes on the relative velocity/speed of the moon and the sun, referencing Tycho Brahe's Tabulae Rudolphinae (which Kepler helped complete after Brahe's death in 1601) and explicitly noting Copernicus's prior work on the problem. It examines variations in orbital speed (e.g., longitude of moon/sun, moon's motion in orbit), an early exploration of non-uniform motion in orbits. Dated c.1601–1605, likely Prague period shortly after joining Brahe/Tychonic data access. Pages numbered by Kepler "19" and "29" (suggesting part of a larger notebook or series).
- December (earlier, c.1601–1605): From Kepler's formative Prague years, post-Brahe, when he began analyzing Tychonic observations to challenge circular orbits and uniform motion—key steps toward his first two laws (elliptical orbits and equal areas law, published in Astronomia nova, 1609). More foundational to his empirical breakthrough.
- October (later, post-1617): From his mature phase, incorporating logarithms (which he mathematically justified in his 1624 Chilias logarithmorum) to compute planetary positions more efficiently—aligning with refinements in his Rudolphine Tables (1627) and broader application of his laws.
- October: Written on a personal letter address leaf (to his wife, posthumously reused), adding a biographical layer.
- December: From the renowned collector Stefan Zweig's holdings (noted for his high-caliber autograph manuscripts), which may have contributed to bidder interest and the higher price despite similar estimates.
1605 Dialogo in puerposito de la Stella Nuova
2025 SOLD for £ 1.13M by Christie's
The stellar system is unchangeable, isn't it ? At the time of Aristotle when no telescope was yet available, no supernova had been observed from the Western world. Supernovae visible to the naked eye are indeed extremely rare, much less than two per century.
The very first supernova event caught in Europe was in 1572. Extensively studied by Tycho Brahe, it was the first ever observation challenging the all powerful Aristotelian dogma of the immutability of the skies, fully supported by the Christian church.
In 1602 a reprint of Tycho Brahe's book was overseen by Kepler then in progress of establishing his first two astronomical laws. By chance the next supernova appeared two years later, in 1604. Originally visible in daylight, it gradually faded in a period of 18 months.
In a hurry, an Aristotelian philosopher published in Padua under a pseudonym a book interpreting the supernova as a terrestrial phenomenon, because ‘if a single star were added to the heavens, they would cease to revolve'.
Galileo observed an absence of parallax and concluded that the new star was beyond the moon, so discarding no less than the Aristotelian perfection of the cosmos and promoting measurement as the only secure criterion in scientific research. Seconded by one of his students, he published under a pseudonym in 1605 a book in the form of a witty dialogue between two Paduan peasants. The anonymous essay in Paduan dialect is the first book by the scientist then aged 40.
We must be cautious with the Christian church. The second edition published in Verona later in 1605 removed the direct reference to Aristotle and the Copernican allusion to the Earth's rotation.
12 copies, of which 8 are complete, are surviving from the original Paduan edition. The last one that just surfaced in a private collection is the only example in private hands. This in quarto 20 x 14 cm was sold for £ 1.13M from a lower estimate of £ 500K by Christie's on July 9, 2025, lot 87.
A full report was issued by Kepler in 1606 and the new star was from then identified as Kepler's supernova. Galileo developed his telescope in 1609.
Their remarkable technical feat paved the way to the acceptance of the heliocentrism.
The very first supernova event caught in Europe was in 1572. Extensively studied by Tycho Brahe, it was the first ever observation challenging the all powerful Aristotelian dogma of the immutability of the skies, fully supported by the Christian church.
In 1602 a reprint of Tycho Brahe's book was overseen by Kepler then in progress of establishing his first two astronomical laws. By chance the next supernova appeared two years later, in 1604. Originally visible in daylight, it gradually faded in a period of 18 months.
In a hurry, an Aristotelian philosopher published in Padua under a pseudonym a book interpreting the supernova as a terrestrial phenomenon, because ‘if a single star were added to the heavens, they would cease to revolve'.
Galileo observed an absence of parallax and concluded that the new star was beyond the moon, so discarding no less than the Aristotelian perfection of the cosmos and promoting measurement as the only secure criterion in scientific research. Seconded by one of his students, he published under a pseudonym in 1605 a book in the form of a witty dialogue between two Paduan peasants. The anonymous essay in Paduan dialect is the first book by the scientist then aged 40.
We must be cautious with the Christian church. The second edition published in Verona later in 1605 removed the direct reference to Aristotle and the Copernican allusion to the Earth's rotation.
12 copies, of which 8 are complete, are surviving from the original Paduan edition. The last one that just surfaced in a private collection is the only example in private hands. This in quarto 20 x 14 cm was sold for £ 1.13M from a lower estimate of £ 500K by Christie's on July 9, 2025, lot 87.
A full report was issued by Kepler in 1606 and the new star was from then identified as Kepler's supernova. Galileo developed his telescope in 1609.
Their remarkable technical feat paved the way to the acceptance of the heliocentrism.
1687 Principia by NEWTON
Intro
Isaac Newton was the most brilliant scientific innovator of all time. Late in his life he laid down the rules that had guided his unprecedented method. One of these rules summarizes in a simple sentence how he created the modern physics : to the same natural effects we must, as far as possible, assign the same causes.
One of his outstanding skills was to develop mathematical methods of high complexity to analyze and support his own physical theories. Even before he was 30, he compared the motion of the planets and the fall of the bodies. Essentially preoccupied with his own understanding of the mechanism of the universe, he published reluctantly.
Isaac Newton : Influence on the advancement of Physics, Astronomy and overall on Science and Knowledge. Psychological evaluation.
Isaac Newton's Influence on the Advancement of Physics, Astronomy, and Overall Science and Knowledge
Isaac Newton (1643–1727) stands as one of the most pivotal figures in the history of science, fundamentally reshaping our understanding of the physical world through his groundbreaking work in mathematics, physics, optics, and astronomy. His contributions during the Scientific Revolution laid the foundations for classical mechanics and modern scientific inquiry, influencing fields far beyond his era and enabling advancements in technology, engineering, and cosmology that persist today.
Contributions to Physics
Newton's most renowned work, Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (commonly known as the Principia), published in 1687, introduced his three laws of motion, which became the bedrock of classical physics. These laws are:
In optics, Newton's 1704 book Opticks demonstrated that white light is composed of a spectrum of colors through prism experiments, laying the groundwork for spectral analysis and modern understanding of light as a wave-particle phenomenon. He also invented the reflecting telescope in 1668, which minimized chromatic aberration and advanced observational tools in physics and astronomy.
Contributions to Astronomy
Newton's gravitational theory derived Kepler's laws of planetary motion from first principles, confirming heliocentrism and explaining the precession of equinoxes, lunar orbits, and satellite dynamics. By applying his laws to Jupiter's moons and Earth's Moon, he showed that the same force governing apples falling on Earth holds planets in orbit around the Sun. This unification eradicated doubts about the Solar System's structure and enabled predictions of celestial events, such as Halley's Comet's return. His reflecting telescope design improved astronomical observations, contributing to later discoveries in stellar dynamics and galactic behavior.
Newton's work extended to calculating the speed of sound and the density of air, influencing astrophysics and planetary science. His model of the universe was more elegant and consistent than predecessors, fostering a mechanistic worldview that propelled astronomy forward.
Broader Impact on Science and Knowledge
Newton co-invented infinitesimal calculus (independently of Leibniz), providing tools for solving problems in rates of change, integrals, and differential equations—essential for physics, engineering, and economics. His emphasis on empirical evidence and mathematical rigor refined the scientific method, shifting science from philosophical speculation to quantitative experimentation. This approach catalyzed the Enlightenment, inspiring figures like Voltaire and Kant, and established Newton as the exemplar of modern science.
Overall, Newton's ideas revolutionized knowledge by demonstrating that natural phenomena could be explained through universal laws, influencing everything from space exploration to quantum mechanics. His legacy is often summarized as having contributed more to science than any other individual, ushering in an era where observation and mathematics became the pillars of human understanding.
Psychological Evaluation of Isaac Newton
Posthumous psychological assessments of Newton are inherently speculative, based on historical accounts, letters, and biographical analyses rather than clinical diagnoses. However, evidence from contemporaries and modern analyses points to a complex personality marked by insecurity, introversion, and episodes of mental distress, possibly exacerbated by environmental factors like mercury exposure from his alchemical experiments. Sources vary in their interpretations, with some attributing symptoms to bipolar disorder, depression, or schizophrenia, while others emphasize mercury poisoning or neurotic traits stemming from childhood trauma.
Newton was described as deeply introverted, secretive, and protective of his privacy, often avoiding social interactions and forming few close relationships. He exhibited low self-esteem, egotism, dominance, and paranoia, fearing theft of his ideas or criticism from rivals like Robert Hooke or Leibniz. As a child, he was solitary, preferring inventions over play, and his mother's remarriage and separation from him at age three likely contributed to lifelong insecurity and trust issues.
A major episode occurred in 1692–1693, often called a "nervous breakdown" or "madness," lasting about 18 months. Symptoms included severe insomnia, poor digestion, loss of appetite, memory problems, delusions of persecution (e.g., believing friends like John Locke and Samuel Pepys were conspiring against him), paranoia, and irrational accusations. He experienced violent temper outbursts, apathy, and withdrawal from friendships, including a strained relationship with Nicolas Fatio de Duillier. Explanations differ:
One of his outstanding skills was to develop mathematical methods of high complexity to analyze and support his own physical theories. Even before he was 30, he compared the motion of the planets and the fall of the bodies. Essentially preoccupied with his own understanding of the mechanism of the universe, he published reluctantly.
Isaac Newton : Influence on the advancement of Physics, Astronomy and overall on Science and Knowledge. Psychological evaluation.
Isaac Newton's Influence on the Advancement of Physics, Astronomy, and Overall Science and Knowledge
Isaac Newton (1643–1727) stands as one of the most pivotal figures in the history of science, fundamentally reshaping our understanding of the physical world through his groundbreaking work in mathematics, physics, optics, and astronomy. His contributions during the Scientific Revolution laid the foundations for classical mechanics and modern scientific inquiry, influencing fields far beyond his era and enabling advancements in technology, engineering, and cosmology that persist today.
Contributions to Physics
Newton's most renowned work, Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (commonly known as the Principia), published in 1687, introduced his three laws of motion, which became the bedrock of classical physics. These laws are:
- Law of Inertia: A body remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by an external force.
- Law of Acceleration: The change in motion is proportional to the force applied (F = ma).
- Law of Action-Reaction: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
In optics, Newton's 1704 book Opticks demonstrated that white light is composed of a spectrum of colors through prism experiments, laying the groundwork for spectral analysis and modern understanding of light as a wave-particle phenomenon. He also invented the reflecting telescope in 1668, which minimized chromatic aberration and advanced observational tools in physics and astronomy.
Contributions to Astronomy
Newton's gravitational theory derived Kepler's laws of planetary motion from first principles, confirming heliocentrism and explaining the precession of equinoxes, lunar orbits, and satellite dynamics. By applying his laws to Jupiter's moons and Earth's Moon, he showed that the same force governing apples falling on Earth holds planets in orbit around the Sun. This unification eradicated doubts about the Solar System's structure and enabled predictions of celestial events, such as Halley's Comet's return. His reflecting telescope design improved astronomical observations, contributing to later discoveries in stellar dynamics and galactic behavior.
Newton's work extended to calculating the speed of sound and the density of air, influencing astrophysics and planetary science. His model of the universe was more elegant and consistent than predecessors, fostering a mechanistic worldview that propelled astronomy forward.
Broader Impact on Science and Knowledge
Newton co-invented infinitesimal calculus (independently of Leibniz), providing tools for solving problems in rates of change, integrals, and differential equations—essential for physics, engineering, and economics. His emphasis on empirical evidence and mathematical rigor refined the scientific method, shifting science from philosophical speculation to quantitative experimentation. This approach catalyzed the Enlightenment, inspiring figures like Voltaire and Kant, and established Newton as the exemplar of modern science.
Overall, Newton's ideas revolutionized knowledge by demonstrating that natural phenomena could be explained through universal laws, influencing everything from space exploration to quantum mechanics. His legacy is often summarized as having contributed more to science than any other individual, ushering in an era where observation and mathematics became the pillars of human understanding.
Psychological Evaluation of Isaac Newton
Posthumous psychological assessments of Newton are inherently speculative, based on historical accounts, letters, and biographical analyses rather than clinical diagnoses. However, evidence from contemporaries and modern analyses points to a complex personality marked by insecurity, introversion, and episodes of mental distress, possibly exacerbated by environmental factors like mercury exposure from his alchemical experiments. Sources vary in their interpretations, with some attributing symptoms to bipolar disorder, depression, or schizophrenia, while others emphasize mercury poisoning or neurotic traits stemming from childhood trauma.
Newton was described as deeply introverted, secretive, and protective of his privacy, often avoiding social interactions and forming few close relationships. He exhibited low self-esteem, egotism, dominance, and paranoia, fearing theft of his ideas or criticism from rivals like Robert Hooke or Leibniz. As a child, he was solitary, preferring inventions over play, and his mother's remarriage and separation from him at age three likely contributed to lifelong insecurity and trust issues.
A major episode occurred in 1692–1693, often called a "nervous breakdown" or "madness," lasting about 18 months. Symptoms included severe insomnia, poor digestion, loss of appetite, memory problems, delusions of persecution (e.g., believing friends like John Locke and Samuel Pepys were conspiring against him), paranoia, and irrational accusations. He experienced violent temper outbursts, apathy, and withdrawal from friendships, including a strained relationship with Nicolas Fatio de Duillier. Explanations differ:
- Mercury Poisoning: Hair analysis from the 1970s showed elevated mercury (up to 40 times normal) and lead levels, consistent with his alchemical pursuits involving toxic substances. Symptoms like tremor, confusion, paranoia, and memory loss align with chronic mercury poisoning (mercurialism), which some argue caused or worsened his 1693 episode rather than inherent mental illness.
- Bipolar Disorder: Newton showed manic phases (intense, sleepless productivity leading to major discoveries in his 20s) alternating with depressive lows, including suicidal thoughts, anxiety, and sadness documented in his notebooks. His high-strung nature and brooding suggest neuroticism, where overthinking fueled both creativity and unhappiness.
- Other Possibilities: Some propose schizophrenia (hallucinations, delusions, paranoia) or autism (social difficulties, obsessive focus), but these are less supported; one analysis rejects Asperger's syndrome in favor of childhood-induced vulnerability. Depression or melancholia is frequently cited, with grandiose elements in his self-perception (e.g., feeling chosen by God).
1
2016 SOLD for $ 3.7M by Christie's
In 1684 in London, the scientists of the Royal Society challenged themselves to find the mathematical formulation of the law of motion of the planets described by Kepler. All failed. Halley visits Newton in Cambridge. He is stunned : Newton knows the solution but has lost his calculation notes. The orbital movement of a celestial body is an ellipse whose position of the other body is one of the foci.
The scientific stake is highly important and Halley manages to persuade Newton to disclose in their entirety his results concerning the law of universal gravitation. Edited and financed by Halley, Newton's Latin book entitled Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica is published in 1687 with the imprimatur of the Royal Society.
The book is difficult in the opinion of the author himself and the circulation probably did not exceed 300 copies but it is of such scientific importance that Halley and Newton took care of organizing their sale through booksellers. One of them named Samuel Smith is more specifically entrusted to the supply onto the Continent and receives about 50 copies for that purpose.
On December 14, 2016, Christie's sold one of the Smith 'Continental' presentation copies of the Principia for $ 3.7M from a lower estimate of $ 1M, lot 167. It is bound in its original unrestored morocco with gold and red inlays. The recipient is not identified.
The scientific stake is highly important and Halley manages to persuade Newton to disclose in their entirety his results concerning the law of universal gravitation. Edited and financed by Halley, Newton's Latin book entitled Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica is published in 1687 with the imprimatur of the Royal Society.
The book is difficult in the opinion of the author himself and the circulation probably did not exceed 300 copies but it is of such scientific importance that Halley and Newton took care of organizing their sale through booksellers. One of them named Samuel Smith is more specifically entrusted to the supply onto the Continent and receives about 50 copies for that purpose.
On December 14, 2016, Christie's sold one of the Smith 'Continental' presentation copies of the Principia for $ 3.7M from a lower estimate of $ 1M, lot 167. It is bound in its original unrestored morocco with gold and red inlays. The recipient is not identified.
Newton's deluxe "Principia" far surpasses $1 million @ChristiesBKS today, reaching $3.7 million! https://t.co/V3Bwq6aGsu pic.twitter.com/4xardPPXsM
— Fine Books Magazine (@finebooks) December 14, 2016
2
2013 SOLD for $ 2.5M by Christie's
A Royal copy of the Principia in its original morocco luxury binding was sold for $ 2.5M by Christie's on December 6, 2013 from a lower estimate of $ 400K, lot 170.
It had been presented by Halley to King James II, patron of the Royal Society. The Royal bindings from that reign are extremely rare.
It had been presented by Halley to King James II, patron of the Royal Society. The Royal bindings from that reign are extremely rare.
1694 Autograph Notes by Newton and Gregory
2021 SOLD for £ 1.7M by Christie's
The quest for the divine truth is the passion of Isaac Newton. He appreciates that his original edition of the Principia in 1687 still has some unanswered questions. He does not want being disturbed by outsiders. The book is in Latin and not in vernacular so that only great minds will comprehend it. Somebody said : "There goes a man who has written a book neither he nor anyone else can understand".
David Gregory was one of the happy few who were skilled to construct on the Principia. A professor of mathematics at the University of Edinburgh, he was 17 years younger than Newton. He was the first to lecture on the Principia and began communicating with Newton. In 1691 Newton managed to have Gregory elected to the Savilian chair of astronomy at the University of Oxford.
In May 1694 Gregory visited Newton in Cambridge in a six day working session based on the proposed revisions to the Principia. Their combined autograph manuscripts are heavily revised working documents based on the texts under discussion from throughout the Principia.
A scrap of paper 22 x 19 cm escaped for an unknown reason the deposit of Gregory's papers at the Royal Institution in the 1860s. These one and a half pages in Latin include 39 lines in Newton’s hand, alongside 14 lines and two diagrams by Gregory. They deal with three topics : the force acting in the compression of liquids, the orbit of the comets, the build of conic figures on centripetal forces.
This unpublished scientific draft was sold for £ 1.7M from a lower estimate of £ 600K by Christie's on July 8, 2021, lot 22. Please watch the video shared by the auction house. The tweets illustrate both sides of the paper.
David Gregory was one of the happy few who were skilled to construct on the Principia. A professor of mathematics at the University of Edinburgh, he was 17 years younger than Newton. He was the first to lecture on the Principia and began communicating with Newton. In 1691 Newton managed to have Gregory elected to the Savilian chair of astronomy at the University of Oxford.
In May 1694 Gregory visited Newton in Cambridge in a six day working session based on the proposed revisions to the Principia. Their combined autograph manuscripts are heavily revised working documents based on the texts under discussion from throughout the Principia.
A scrap of paper 22 x 19 cm escaped for an unknown reason the deposit of Gregory's papers at the Royal Institution in the 1860s. These one and a half pages in Latin include 39 lines in Newton’s hand, alongside 14 lines and two diagrams by Gregory. They deal with three topics : the force acting in the compression of liquids, the orbit of the comets, the build of conic figures on centripetal forces.
This unpublished scientific draft was sold for £ 1.7M from a lower estimate of £ 600K by Christie's on July 8, 2021, lot 22. Please watch the video shared by the auction house. The tweets illustrate both sides of the paper.
#AuctionUpdate A remarkable scientific manuscript by Sir Isaac Newton sold for £1,702,500, setting a new #WorldAuctionRecord for an #IsaacNewton manuscript. The manuscript contains autograph notes showing one of history's greatest scientific minds at work. □ □ pic.twitter.com/5CPmOmsiIO
— Christie's (@ChristiesInc) July 8, 2021
1745-1749 Sistème du Monde selon Neuton by Mme du Châtelet
2012 SOLD for € 960K by Christie's
Helped by Maupertuis and Clairaut, the Marquise du Châtelet is able to understand and comment on Newton and Leibniz. In their château de Cirey, the marquis admires the exceptional intelligence of his wife and closes his eyes on her loves.
In 1734 Voltaire is disgraced. The Marquise lodges him in Cirey. She is 27 years old. The philosopher learns from his mistress the mathematics and physics that he had largely neglected until then.
The Marquise is a tireless worker. Her manuscripts, often written by secretaries and extensively reworked by her, surfaced a few years ago in an attic. Important pieces were sold by Christie's on October 29, 2012. A call for donations had been issued for an acquisition by the French State and 1400 researchers from around the world had signed a petition for a pre-emption. Both moves were unsuccessful because of the high prices that were expected.
The top lot was a set of 35 workbooks prepared from 1745 to 1749 by Madame du Châtelet for the didactic abstracts accompanying her translation of Newton's Principia Mathematica. Estimated € 400K, it was acquired in that sale for € 960K by the Musée des Lettres et Manuscrits de Paris which had immediately communicated its commitment to exhibit it to the public.
The museum was managed by Aristophil. In the same sale, Aristophil had anonymously acquired 8 lots of manuscripts by the Marquise, 2 lots of manuscripts by Voltaire on Newton and a portrait of the Marquise attributed to Marie-Anne Loir.
These lots were sold on November 19, 2018 by OVA, the company in charge of the legal dispersion of the Aristophil collections. The auction was operated by Artcurial. The abstracts of the Principia were sold for € 510K, lot 689.
In 1734 Voltaire is disgraced. The Marquise lodges him in Cirey. She is 27 years old. The philosopher learns from his mistress the mathematics and physics that he had largely neglected until then.
The Marquise is a tireless worker. Her manuscripts, often written by secretaries and extensively reworked by her, surfaced a few years ago in an attic. Important pieces were sold by Christie's on October 29, 2012. A call for donations had been issued for an acquisition by the French State and 1400 researchers from around the world had signed a petition for a pre-emption. Both moves were unsuccessful because of the high prices that were expected.
The top lot was a set of 35 workbooks prepared from 1745 to 1749 by Madame du Châtelet for the didactic abstracts accompanying her translation of Newton's Principia Mathematica. Estimated € 400K, it was acquired in that sale for € 960K by the Musée des Lettres et Manuscrits de Paris which had immediately communicated its commitment to exhibit it to the public.
The museum was managed by Aristophil. In the same sale, Aristophil had anonymously acquired 8 lots of manuscripts by the Marquise, 2 lots of manuscripts by Voltaire on Newton and a portrait of the Marquise attributed to Marie-Anne Loir.
These lots were sold on November 19, 2018 by OVA, the company in charge of the legal dispersion of the Aristophil collections. The auction was operated by Artcurial. The abstracts of the Principia were sold for € 510K, lot 689.
Les manuscrits d'Emilie du Châtelet "Exposition abregée du sisteme du monde selon les principes de Mr.Neuton" vient d'emporter 507 000 € lors de la vente n°13 des Collections Aristophil par @Artcurial pic.twitter.com/WU40wTQ76c
— Drouot (@Drouot) November 19, 2018
1913 Relativity by Einstein and Besso
2021 SOLD for € 11.7M by Aguttes-Perrine
Albert Einstein early appreciated that physics is a complex inter-relation between the basic concepts of light, electricity, energy, inertia, mass. He therefore brings a modern view to Newton's works.
In physics it is not uneasy to propose theories and equations. None of them is valid until it is verified by an experience.
There was a discrepancy in the application of Newton's universal gravitation theory : the orbit of Mercury, the nearest planet to the sun, is not perfectly elliptic. The tiny discrepancy is 43 seconds of arc per century at the perihelion.
In June 1913 in Zurich, Einstein and his lifelong friend Michele Besso manage a working session on the Mercury issue. Einstein's unprecedented intuition is that the gravity must be distorted by the rotation.
The two friends create and test equations in a method of trial and error. None of them matches the expected result of 43 seconds per century. After some additions in early 1914, Besso keeps their working notes.
This autograph draft document is made of 54 pages on 37 loose sheets 21 x 27 cm in equal parts by Einstein and Besso. It was sold for $ 560K by Christie's on October 4, 2002, lot 81. Coming from the Aristophil judicial liquidation, it was sold for € 11.7M from a lower estimate of € 2M by Aguttes et Perrine supported by Christie's on November 23, 2021, lot A. Please watch the video prepared by Christie's.
Einstein is persistent. He manages to refine the parameters and establish the suitable "Einstein field equations", thus releasing in 1915 a refined theory of gravitation known as the general relativity which is still today the basic of cosmology.
In physics it is not uneasy to propose theories and equations. None of them is valid until it is verified by an experience.
There was a discrepancy in the application of Newton's universal gravitation theory : the orbit of Mercury, the nearest planet to the sun, is not perfectly elliptic. The tiny discrepancy is 43 seconds of arc per century at the perihelion.
In June 1913 in Zurich, Einstein and his lifelong friend Michele Besso manage a working session on the Mercury issue. Einstein's unprecedented intuition is that the gravity must be distorted by the rotation.
The two friends create and test equations in a method of trial and error. None of them matches the expected result of 43 seconds per century. After some additions in early 1914, Besso keeps their working notes.
This autograph draft document is made of 54 pages on 37 loose sheets 21 x 27 cm in equal parts by Einstein and Besso. It was sold for $ 560K by Christie's on October 4, 2002, lot 81. Coming from the Aristophil judicial liquidation, it was sold for € 11.7M from a lower estimate of € 2M by Aguttes et Perrine supported by Christie's on November 23, 2021, lot A. Please watch the video prepared by Christie's.
Einstein is persistent. He manages to refine the parameters and establish the suitable "Einstein field equations", thus releasing in 1915 a refined theory of gravitation known as the general relativity which is still today the basic of cosmology.
Albert Einstein : Influence on the advancement of Physics, Astronomy and overall on Science and Knowledge. Psychological evaluation.
Influence on the Advancement of Physics, Astronomy, and Overall Science and Knowledge
Albert Einstein (1879–1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist whose groundbreaking work revolutionized multiple scientific disciplines. His theories not only reshaped fundamental understandings of the universe but also laid the groundwork for technologies and concepts that permeate modern life. Below, I outline his key contributions, focusing on physics, astronomy, and broader impacts on science and human knowledge.
Contributions to Physics
Einstein's most transformative ideas emerged in 1905, his "annus mirabilis," when he published four seminal papers while working as a patent clerk. These included explanations of the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and mass-energy equivalence (E=mc²). The photoelectric effect, for which he won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics, demonstrated that light behaves as particles (photons), providing a cornerstone for quantum mechanics. This challenged classical wave theories and influenced fields like quantum theory, where Einstein also contributed to early developments, though he later critiqued its probabilistic nature with his famous "God does not play dice" remark.
His theory of special relativity (1905) unified space and time into spacetime, establishing that the laws of physics are the same for all non-accelerating observers and that the speed of light is constant. This led to E=mc², linking mass and energy, which underpins nuclear physics and energy production. In 1915, he expanded this with general relativity, redefining gravity as the curvature of spacetime caused by mass. General relativity predicted phenomena like time dilation, gravitational waves (confirmed in 2015), and the bending of light around massive objects, confirmed during a 1919 solar eclipse. These theories resolved inconsistencies in Newtonian physics and enabled advancements in particle physics, cosmology, and even everyday technologies like GPS, which accounts for relativistic effects.
Contributions to Astronomy
Einstein's work profoundly influenced astronomy by providing tools to understand cosmic phenomena. General relativity predicted gravitational lensing, where massive objects bend light, allowing astronomers to observe distant galaxies and dark matter. It also forecasted black holes, relativistic jets from them, and the expansion of the universe—ideas that shaped modern cosmology and were validated by observations like those from the Hubble Space Telescope. His equations enabled the study of the universe's evolution, from the Big Bang to gravitational waves detected by LIGO. Astronomy shifted from descriptive to predictive science partly due to Einstein, influencing discoveries in exoplanets, neutron stars, and cosmic microwave background radiation.
Overall Impact on Science and Knowledge
Einstein's legacy extends beyond specific fields, fostering a paradigm shift in scientific inquiry. He demonstrated how mathematics could reveal nature's laws, blending physics with geometry in general relativity. His work bridged classical and quantum realms, inspiring unified theories and advancements in fields like chemistry (via quantum mechanics) and engineering (nuclear power, lasers from photoelectric insights). Philosophically, he challenged deterministic views, emphasizing relativity in observation and the interconnectedness of matter, energy, space, and time. As a cultural icon, Einstein symbolized intellectual curiosity, influencing education, ethics in science (e.g., his warnings on atomic weapons), and interdisciplinary approaches. His ideas permeated knowledge systems, from epistemology to technology, making abstract concepts accessible and driving innovations like semiconductors and space exploration.
Psychological Evaluation
Evaluating Einstein's psychology retrospectively is speculative, as no formal diagnoses were made during his lifetime, and modern criteria for neurodivergence evolved later. Insights come from biographies, brain studies, and expert analyses, focusing on his cognitive style, social traits, and brain anatomy.
Einstein's brain, preserved after his 1955 death, showed atypical features: enlarged parietal lobes linked to visuospatial and mathematical abilities, and an extraordinary prefrontal cortex potentially supporting his abstract thinking and creativity. These may explain his self-described "associative play" of visual and muscular images in problem-solving, rather than verbal processes. His brain weight was average (age-adjusted around 1,352g), but unusual sulcal patterns suggested neurological reorganization for higher cognition.
Speculations about neurodivergence include autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or Asperger's syndrome, based on traits like late speech (he spoke fluently around age 9), intense focus on interests, social awkwardness, bluntness, and preference for solitude. Experts like psychiatrist Michael Fitzgerald and autism researcher Simon Baron-Cohen noted overlaps between ASD genes and creativity, suggesting Einstein's "social phobia" and nonconformity aligned with this. ADHD traits, such as disorganization and forgetfulness amid insightfulness, have also been proposed. Claims of dyslexia or dyspraxia are debated; while he struggled in rigid schooling, evidence points more to motivational blocks than neurological deficits in language processing. Psychodynamic perspectives, drawing from Freud, suggest Einstein sublimated unconscious drives into scientific pursuits, with his ego balancing id impulses and superego norms. Object relations theory highlights symbolic motivations in his creativity. However, these are interpretive, not diagnostic. Einstein remained mentally sharp until death, with no major psychiatric issues noted. Late talking, often called "Einstein Syndrome," can indicate either developmental delays or normal variation in bright individuals. Overall, his psychology reflects a unique blend of genius-level cognition and eccentricity, potentially enhanced by neurodivergent traits, though unconfirmed.
Influence on the Advancement of Physics, Astronomy, and Overall Science and Knowledge
Albert Einstein (1879–1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist whose groundbreaking work revolutionized multiple scientific disciplines. His theories not only reshaped fundamental understandings of the universe but also laid the groundwork for technologies and concepts that permeate modern life. Below, I outline his key contributions, focusing on physics, astronomy, and broader impacts on science and human knowledge.
Contributions to Physics
Einstein's most transformative ideas emerged in 1905, his "annus mirabilis," when he published four seminal papers while working as a patent clerk. These included explanations of the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and mass-energy equivalence (E=mc²). The photoelectric effect, for which he won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics, demonstrated that light behaves as particles (photons), providing a cornerstone for quantum mechanics. This challenged classical wave theories and influenced fields like quantum theory, where Einstein also contributed to early developments, though he later critiqued its probabilistic nature with his famous "God does not play dice" remark.
His theory of special relativity (1905) unified space and time into spacetime, establishing that the laws of physics are the same for all non-accelerating observers and that the speed of light is constant. This led to E=mc², linking mass and energy, which underpins nuclear physics and energy production. In 1915, he expanded this with general relativity, redefining gravity as the curvature of spacetime caused by mass. General relativity predicted phenomena like time dilation, gravitational waves (confirmed in 2015), and the bending of light around massive objects, confirmed during a 1919 solar eclipse. These theories resolved inconsistencies in Newtonian physics and enabled advancements in particle physics, cosmology, and even everyday technologies like GPS, which accounts for relativistic effects.
Contributions to Astronomy
Einstein's work profoundly influenced astronomy by providing tools to understand cosmic phenomena. General relativity predicted gravitational lensing, where massive objects bend light, allowing astronomers to observe distant galaxies and dark matter. It also forecasted black holes, relativistic jets from them, and the expansion of the universe—ideas that shaped modern cosmology and were validated by observations like those from the Hubble Space Telescope. His equations enabled the study of the universe's evolution, from the Big Bang to gravitational waves detected by LIGO. Astronomy shifted from descriptive to predictive science partly due to Einstein, influencing discoveries in exoplanets, neutron stars, and cosmic microwave background radiation.
Overall Impact on Science and Knowledge
Einstein's legacy extends beyond specific fields, fostering a paradigm shift in scientific inquiry. He demonstrated how mathematics could reveal nature's laws, blending physics with geometry in general relativity. His work bridged classical and quantum realms, inspiring unified theories and advancements in fields like chemistry (via quantum mechanics) and engineering (nuclear power, lasers from photoelectric insights). Philosophically, he challenged deterministic views, emphasizing relativity in observation and the interconnectedness of matter, energy, space, and time. As a cultural icon, Einstein symbolized intellectual curiosity, influencing education, ethics in science (e.g., his warnings on atomic weapons), and interdisciplinary approaches. His ideas permeated knowledge systems, from epistemology to technology, making abstract concepts accessible and driving innovations like semiconductors and space exploration.
Psychological Evaluation
Evaluating Einstein's psychology retrospectively is speculative, as no formal diagnoses were made during his lifetime, and modern criteria for neurodivergence evolved later. Insights come from biographies, brain studies, and expert analyses, focusing on his cognitive style, social traits, and brain anatomy.
Einstein's brain, preserved after his 1955 death, showed atypical features: enlarged parietal lobes linked to visuospatial and mathematical abilities, and an extraordinary prefrontal cortex potentially supporting his abstract thinking and creativity. These may explain his self-described "associative play" of visual and muscular images in problem-solving, rather than verbal processes. His brain weight was average (age-adjusted around 1,352g), but unusual sulcal patterns suggested neurological reorganization for higher cognition.
Speculations about neurodivergence include autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or Asperger's syndrome, based on traits like late speech (he spoke fluently around age 9), intense focus on interests, social awkwardness, bluntness, and preference for solitude. Experts like psychiatrist Michael Fitzgerald and autism researcher Simon Baron-Cohen noted overlaps between ASD genes and creativity, suggesting Einstein's "social phobia" and nonconformity aligned with this. ADHD traits, such as disorganization and forgetfulness amid insightfulness, have also been proposed. Claims of dyslexia or dyspraxia are debated; while he struggled in rigid schooling, evidence points more to motivational blocks than neurological deficits in language processing. Psychodynamic perspectives, drawing from Freud, suggest Einstein sublimated unconscious drives into scientific pursuits, with his ego balancing id impulses and superego norms. Object relations theory highlights symbolic motivations in his creativity. However, these are interpretive, not diagnostic. Einstein remained mentally sharp until death, with no major psychiatric issues noted. Late talking, often called "Einstein Syndrome," can indicate either developmental delays or normal variation in bright individuals. Overall, his psychology reflects a unique blend of genius-level cognition and eccentricity, potentially enhanced by neurodivergent traits, though unconfirmed.
